BS  2410  .R34  1914 


Rail  Harris  Franklin,  1870. 
New  Testament  history 


Bible  Study  Textbook  Series 


V 

DEC    1  1914 


New  Testament  History 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  BEGINNINGS 
OF  CHRISTIANITY 


By 
HARRIS  FRANKLIN  RALL,  Ph.D. 

President    and    Professor    of  Systematic   Theology 
The   Iliff  School    of   Theology,   Denver,  Colorado 


THE  ABINGDON  PRESS 
NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI 


Copyright,  1914,  by 
HARRIS   FRANKLIN  RALL 

The  Bible  quotations  used  in  this  volume  are  taken  from  the  American  Standard 

Edition  of  the  Revised  Bible,  Copyright,  1901,  by  Thomas 

Nelson  &  Sons,  and  are  used  by  permission 


To 

R.  S.  J.  R. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Publishers'  Announcement 7 

Introduction 9 

PART  I 

THE  WORLD  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH 
chapter 

I.  The  Roman-Grecian  World 13 

IL  The  Jewish  World 20 

PART  II 
JESUS 

III.  John  the  Baptist 29 

IV.  Birth  and  Childhood 33 

V.  The  Call  and   the  Temptation 40 

VI.  The  Beginnings 46 

VII.  The  Ministry  of  Healing 53 

VIII.  The  Ministry  of   Forgiveness 57 

IX.  The  Master  Teacher 62 

X.  The  Kingdom  of  God 69 

XI.  The  Father 76 

XII.  The  Life   with  God 82 

XIII.  The   Life   with   Men 90 

XIV.  Foes   and  Conflicts 95 

XV.  Jesus  and  His  Friends 100 

XVI.  Turning   Points 104 

XVII.  Facing  Jerusalem 112 

XVIII.  Closing  Days 118 

XIX.  The  Last  Hours 127 

XX.  The  Trial   and  Crucifixon 132 

PART  HI 
THE  JERUSALEM  CHURCH 

XXI.  The  Beginnings  of  the   Church i39 

XXII.  The  Faith  and   the  Message I47 

XXIII.  The  Life  of  the   First   Community i53 

XXIV.  From  Jewish  Sect  to  Christian  Church 156 

5 


6  CONTENTS 

PART  IV 
PAUL  AND  THE  CHURCH  OF  THE  EMPIRE 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXV".  The  Man  and  His  Task 169 

XXVI.  Conversion  and   Call 173 

XXVII.  Damascus,  Syria,  and  Cilicia 180 

XXVIII.  Gentile  and  Jewish   Christians 185 

XXIX.  Paul   the   AIissionary 191 

XXX.  Galatia 200 

XXXI.  Macedonia 207 

XXXII.  AcHAiA 217 

XXXIII.  Asia 222 

XXXIV.  The  Life  of  an  Early  Church — 1 230 

XXXV.  The  Life  of  an  Early  Church — II 237 

XXXVI.  Paul  as  Pastor  and  Church  Organizer 245 

XXXVII.  Paul  the  Letter-Writer 254 

XXXVIII.  Paul  the  Prisoner 262 

XXXIX.  Paul  the  Man 273 

PART  V 
THE  LATER  CHURCH 

XL.  The  Faith  of  the  Later   Church 283 

XLI.  The  Life  of  the  Later  Church 292 

XLII.  The  Making  of  the   New   Testament 305 

A  Brief  Bibliography 314 

MAPS 

Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Jesus;  4  B.  C.-30  A.  D.  Facing  Page  20 
St.  Paul's  Journeys    and    the    Early    Christian    Church, 

4.0-100  A.  D 168 


PUBLISHERS'  ANNOUNCEMENT 

For  some  time  past  there  has  been  a  growing  conviction 
of  the  need  of  a  more  complete  and  comprehensive  study  of 
the  Bible  in  all  the  colleges.  Quite  recently  the  matter  has 
received  new  emphasis  and  practical  direction.  A  complete 
course  of  Bible  study  has  been  outlined  by  a  joint  committee 
representing  the  Eastern  and  Western  sections  of  the  Asso- 
ciation of  College  Instructors  in  the  Bible,  the  departments 
of  colleges  and  universities  and  of  teacher  training  of  the 
Religious  Education  Association,  the  Student  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
and  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  and  Sunday  School  Council.  The  proposed 
curriculum  is  not  merely  a  theoretical  outline  but  has 
already  been  tested,  in  part,  at  some  of  the  leading  colleges 
of  the  country. 

The  complete  course  will  include  the  following  books: 
"Old  Testament  History,"  by  Prof.  Ismar  J.  Peritz,  of 
Syracuse  University;  "New  Testament  History,"  by  Dr. 
Harris  Franklin  Rail,  President  of  Iliff  School  of  Theology  ; 
"The  Bible  as  Literature,"  by  Prof.  Irving  F.  Wood  and 
Prof.  Elihu  Grant,  of  Smith  College ;  "Social  Institutions 
and  Ideals  of  the  Bible,"  by  Prof.  Theodore  G.  Soares. 
University  of  Chicago ;  and  "The  History,  Principles  and 
Methods  of  Religious  Education,"  by  Prof.  F.  H.  Swift, 
University  of  Minnesota. 

The  publishers  take  pleasure  in  announcing  that  the 
volumes  on  New  Testament  History  and  The  Bible  as 
Literature  are  now  ready.  Professor  Peritz's  volume  on 
Old  Testament  History  will  be  published  in  time  for  use 
during  the  second  half  of  the  college  year  1914-1915.  and 
the  remaining  volumes  by  Professors  Soares  and  Swift  in 
time  for  the  opening  of  the  1915-1916  college  year.  These 
books  have  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  the  requirements 
of  the  college  course  and  the  needs  of  the  student.     The 

7 


8  PUBLISHERS'  ANNOUNCEMENT 

authors  are  acknowledged  experts  in  their  respective  fields — ■ 
scholars  and  teachers  of  wide  repute.  The  publishers  cor- 
dially commend  this  course  to  the  attention  of  Bible  students 
and  teachers  everywhere. 

The  Abingdon  Press. 


INTRODUCTION 

This  history  might  be  more  strictly  called  a  study  of  the 
beginnings  of  Christianity.  While  designed  primarily  for 
use  as  a  college  textbook,  it  should  be  of  equal  value  to  any 
reader  who  wishes  to  trace  the  story  of  Christianity  in  its 
first  days. 

This  is  first  of  all  a  historical  study.  The  average  man 
has  been  wont  to  regard  Christianity  as  a  fixed  and  finished 
something  that  has  been  dropped  down  from  the  skies.  If 
you  speak  of  the  Christian  religion  he  will  think  first  of  all 
of  a  collection  of  writings,  or  of  a  body  of  doctrine,  or  of 
the  institution  of  the  church.  But  these  three,  Bible  and 
doctrine  and  church,  are  simply  the  products  of  a  greater 
movement  that  lies  back  of  them.  To  understand  Christi- 
anity we  must  go  back  to  this  great  current  of  life,  which 
was  at  once  the  greatest  revelation  of  the  divine  Spirit  and 
the  greatest  movement  of  the  human  spirit  that  mankind 
has  known.  What  was  the  world  to  which  this  new  life 
came?  What  did  its  Founder  teach  and  do?  How  did 
the  world  brotherhood  come  out  of  the  little  company  of 
Jews  that  followed  him  ? 

This  book  is  a  study  of  religion.  That  is  why  this  history 
is  of  such  supreme  interest  to  us.  It  brings  to  us  the  religion 
that  dominates  the  faith  and  conscience  of  men  to-day.  and 
shows  us  this  religion  in  the  person  of  its  great  founders 
and  in  the  transforming  power  of  its  first  great  enthusiasm. 
It  is  a  misconception  of  what  New  Testament  study  should 
be,  to  burden  it  with  the  elaborate  discussion  of  dates  and 
customs  and  the  like.  The  supreme  interest  of  the  New 
Testament  writers  is  in  religion.  What  they  bring  us  is 
not  so  much  a  history  of  this  religion  or  a  statement  of  its 
doctrines.  Their  pages  reflect,  rather,  the  religion  itself, 
the  rich  and  varied  life  out  of  which  all  doctrine  and  insti- 

9 


lo  INTRODUCTION 

tiitions  grew.     The  study  of  this  Hfe  is  the  best  possible 
introduction  to  the  understanding  of  rehgion. 

The  final  aim  of  this  volume  is  to  secure  the  study  of  the 
Bible  itself.  To  this  end  directions  for  reading  and  study 
are  placed  at  the  end  of  each  chapter.  The  Scripture 
passages  here  given  should  be  read  carefully  in  connection 
with  the  text,  after  which  the  other  directions  for  study 
should  be  carried  out.  The  instructor  will  naturally  modify 
these  directions  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  individual  class.  The 
text  aims  to  set  the  biblical  materials  in  their  historical 
relations  and  to  interpret  them  as  part  of  a  great  movement. 
The  instructor,  however,  should  not  be  content  with  question 
and  answer  based  upon  the  text,  but  should  aim  to  secure 
first  of  all  an  interested  and  intelligent  reading  of  the  Bible 
itself. 

While  written  frankly  from  the  modern  historical  point 
of  view,  this  book  does  not  concern  itself  primarily  with 
critical  processes.  Using  the  assured  results  of  sober  study, 
it  aims  to  set  forth  reverently  and  constructively  the  great 
facts  of  this  early  history.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  acknowledge 
the  aid  received,  especially  in  the  revision  of  the  manuscript, 
from  my  colleague,  Professor  Lindsay  B.  Longacre. 

A  brief  bibliography  is  appended.  The  body  of  the  work 
contains  no  references  to  other  authors.  The  Bible  itself  is 
the  only  book  needed.  The  student  should  have  a  copy  of 
the  American  Revised  Version  with  marginal  references. 

Harris  Franklin  Rall. 


PART  I 

THE  WORLD  OF  THE  EARLY 
CHURCH 


CHAPTER    I 
THE    ROMAN-GRECIAN    WORLD 

We  cannot  understand  even  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  The  world 
without  knowing  something  of  the  world  to  which  it  came,  church^"  ^ 
Jesus'  life  seems  quiet  enough  in  its  little  corner  of  the 
world ;  but  Roman  soldiers  are  present  when  he  dies,  Greek 
and  Latin  and  Hebrew  stand  over  his  cross,  and  the  story 
of  his  life  goes  forth  to  the  world  not  in  Hebrew  but  in 
Greek.  Paul's  case  is  even  more  suggestive.  He  was  a 
Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  and  he  bore  the  message  of  a 
Jewish  Messiah ;  but  he  spoke  in  Greek,  he  himself  was  a 
Roman  citizen,  and  his  field  was  the  Roman  empire. 

These  three  worlds  must  be  studied  separately:  (i)  the 
Roman  world,  political  and  social;  (2)  the  Grecian  world 
of  language  and  culture  and  religion;  (3)  the  Jewish  world 
which  we  study  for  its  religion  alone. 

When  Jesus  was  born  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  Rome  The  Roman 
had  fully  entered  upon  her  great  career  as  a  world  empire.  3  traver*^ 
The  nations  about  the  jMediterranean  had  been  merged 
under  her  rule.  Great  roads  stretched  everywhere  for  the 
Roman  soldier.  The  sea  had  been  swept  free  of  pirates. 
Everywhere  was  safety  and  quiet.  As  a  result  trade  and 
travel  of  all  kinds  increased  enormously.  The  Mediter- 
ranean was  one  great  highway.  Travel  was  almost  as 
general  in  the  empire  as  it  is  with  us  to-day.  Paul,  with 
his  long  and  constant  jpurneyings,  was  not  an  isolated  in- 
stance. We  can  imagine  some  of  those  whom  he  must  have 
met  upon  the  road :  the  wealthy  merchant  with  his  shipload 
of  corn  bound  from  Alexandria  to  Rome;  a  company  of 
recruits  traveling  to  join  the  army;  university  students 
bound  for  Athens  or  Alexandria;  travelers  for  pleasure, 
numerous   then   as   now;   \yealthy   Romans   journeying  in 

13 


H 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  lot  of 
the  common 
people 


Slavery 


search  of  health  to  baths,  or  to  cooler  climes ;  some  throng 
bound  for  the  Isthmian  games,  or  a  company  of  Jews  of  the 
dispersion  on  the  way  to  a  feast  at  Jerusalem;  everywhere 
the  representatives  of  Rome,  officials  of  administration  or 
officers  and  soldiers ;  and  finally  the  common  folks,  mer- 
chants like  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  or  artisans  seeking  for 
work. 

But  the  peace  and  increase  of  wealth  meant  little  to  the 
common  people.  Rome  was  never  a  democracy,  nor  had 
Greece  ever  been  such.  There  was  no  great  middle  class, 
prosperous  and  intelligent,  to  form  the  strength  of  the  nation, 
as  with  England  or  America.  Of  the  fifty  millions  or  m.ore 
in  the  Roman  world  the  wealth  and  power  belonged  to  but 
very  few.  Rome  was  a  constant  drain  upon  the  provinces. 
Augustus  declares  that  he  gave  eight  gladiatorial  exhibits 
in  which  ten  thousand  men  fought,  and  twenty-six  exhibits 
of  conflicts  with  wild  beasts  in  which  thirty-five  hundred 
African  beasts  were  slain.  At  the  same  time  he  was  making 
his  donations  of  food  and  money  to  scores  of  thousands  of 
Roman  citizens  at  one  time.  All  this  had  to  come  from  the 
toil  of  the  poor.  There  was  also  the  support  of  Roman 
armies.  The  temple  of  Janus  was  closed  three  times  in 
Augustus's  reign  as  a  sign  of  universal  peace,  but  the  cost 
of  that  peace  was  an  armed  host  ready  to  be  hurled  east 
or  west  or  north  at  the  first  sign  of  uprising.  In  addition 
to  all  this  was  the  procession  of  governors  and  officers  of 
all  kinds  moving  out  to  the  provinces,  amassing  wealth  in 
their  brief  term  of  office,  and  then  giving  way  to  others. 
No  wonder  the  people  compared  themselves  to  the  beggar, 
who  would  not  chase  away  the  flies  that  fed  at  his  sores 
since  to  do  so  would  only  be  to  make  room  for  others  unfed 
and  more  hungry. 

Slavery  is  another  side  of  this  picture.  Roman  wars 
brought  in  captives  by  the  scores  of  thousands.  They  were 
not  necessarily  of  inferior  race,  and  yet  the  power  of  the 
Roman  master  was  absolute.    He  could  feed  a  slave  to  the 


THE  ROMAN-GRFXIAN  WORLD  15 

fishes  if  he  would.  And  the  Roman  law  provided  that  in  case 
any  slave  killed  his  master,  the  whole  household  of  slaves, 
young  and  old,  innocent  and  guilty,  might  be  put  to  death. 

These  common  folks  and  slaves  composed  the  mass  of  The  gospel 
the  members  of  the  early  church.  To  them  Christianity's 
message  of  deliverance  was  indeed  gospel — "good  news." 
It  showed  them  that  their  souls  might  be  free  though  their 
bodies  were  in  bondage.  It  introduced  them  into  a  fellow- 
ship where  all  men  were  brothers.  And  it  gave  them  the 
sustaining  hope  of  the  new  kingdom  that  was  coming,  which 
their  Master  would  speedily  establish  upon  earth. 

Despite  all  this,  Roman  rule  wrought  great  results  for  what  Rome 
the  spread  of  Christianity.  It  broke  down  the  old  barriers  chris°Hanity 
that  divided  race  from  race.  The  oneness  of  the  empire 
prepared  the  way  for  that  great  conception  of  one  brother- 
hood and  one  Father  that  Paul  proclaimed.  Peace  and 
unity  of  the  empire  made  possible  that  active  intercourse 
and  travel  which  did  so  much  for  the  spread  of  the  new 
faith.  It  gave  broad  and  safe  highways  on  land  and  sea, 
little  dreaming  that  they  would  be  remembered  longest  not 
for  the  tread  of  proud  armies,  but  for  the  journeys  of  a 
humble  Jewish  preacher  whose  message  was  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  a  new  and  greater  realm. 

Equally  extensive  with  the  Roman  rule  was  the  world  The  Grecian 
of  thought  and  culture  which  we  call  Grecian.  Greek  was  language 
the  language  of  the  West ;  the  Roman  conquerors  had  gone 
to  school  to  their  captives  and  taken  from  them  language 
and  philosophy  and  art.  Greek  was  the  language  of  the 
East;  Alexander's  empire  had  not  lasted  long  politically, 
but  he  had  carried  Grecian  culture  wherever  he  went  and 
this  had  remained.  The  east  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
was  dotted  with  Hellenistic  cities,  and  they  were  found  in 
the  interior  as  far  as  Persia  and  India.  One  language  could 
thus  be  used  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
Roman  world.  Into  that  language  the  Old  Testament  had 
been  translated,  and  this   Greek  Old  Testament  was  the 


i6 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Religion  in 
the  empire 


National 
religions 


Polytheism 
could  not  last 


Bible  of  the  Jews  outside  of  Palestine.  It  was  in  Greek 
that  Paul  preached  from  Damascus  and  Antioch  to  Rome, 
and  in  the  same  language  our  New  Testament  was  written. 
The  language  was  thus  like  another  Roman  road,  and  even 
more  important.  Along  this  road  of  the  mind  ideals  and 
influences  of  the  greatest  power  could  travel:  the  great 
conceptions  of  Greek  philosophy,  the  great  religious  ideals 
of  the  Greek  Old  Testament,  and  finally  the  religious  con- 
ceptions that  came  from  the  farther  east.  To  the  considera- 
tion of  these  we  now  turn. 

Christianity  did  not  come  to  a  world  without  faith,  or  to 
a  time  of  religious  decadence.  It  was  a  period  of  the  most 
active  and  eager  religious  thought  and  life.  In  the  number 
of  religions  and  religious  societies  the  situation  was  not 
unlike  that  with  us  to-day,  except  that  our  societies  are 
mostly  Christian.  These  religions  were  not  all  darkness 
and  error,  while  even  their  failures  helped  prepare  the  way 
for  Christianity.  They  may  be  studied  under  three  head- 
ings: I.  The  old  national  faiths  and  their  decay.  2. 
Grecian  philosophy  and  its  religious  meaning.  3.  The  new 
religions. 

I.  The  National  Religions.  In  ancient  times  religion 
was  the  concern  primarily  of  the  tribe  or  the  state,  not  of 
the  individual.  It  included  all  the  life  of  a  people.  The 
founding  of  a  city,  the  making  of  war,  the  planting  of  grain 
and  gathering  of  harvests,  the  feasts  and  the  mournings 
were  all  accompanied  and  directed  by  religious  rites;  and 
the  welfare  of  state  and  people  was  held  to  depend  upon 
a  proper  regard  for  such  observances. 

With  Greece  and  Rome  this  religion  was  polytheistic. 
It  was  not  a  religion  that  could  last.  ( i )  It  could  not  stand 
the  test  of  reason.  The  mind  always  seeks  to  find  one  cause 
and  one  meaning  back  of  all  things.  Men  could  not  rest  in 
the  thought  of  many  gods.  (2)  It  could  not  stand  the  test 
of  the  growing  moral  sense.  It  was  a  Greek  philosopher, 
Anaxagoras,  who  wrote  long  before  Christianity:  "Every- 


THE  ROMAN-GRECIAN  WORLD  17 

thing  that  men  count  as  disgraceful  and  immoral — theft, 
adultery,  and  deceit — that  Homer  and  Hesiod  have  ascribed 
to  the  gods."  (3)  It  could  not  meet  the  needs  of  men, 
and  that  was  the  chief  reason  for  its  passing.  It  was  more 
the  religion  of  a  race  in  its  childhood.  It  concerned  itself 
with  the  simpler  needs  of  life:  harvests,  health,  safety, 
success  in  war.  But  men  were  asking  deeper  questions, 
about  deliverance  from  sorrow  and  sin  and  death,  about  the 
hope  of  a  life  to  come.  The  time  of  individualism  was 
coming;  men  wanted  a  life  for  themselves,  and  not  simply 
as  part  of  a  city  or  nation.  The  old  faiths  had  no  answer 
for  these  questions. 

2.  Grecian  Philosophy.  The  story  of  Grecian  philosophy  Grecian 
is  a  noble  chapter  in  human  history.  It  has  its  great  char-  ^  'osophy 
acters  like  Socrates,  the  man  of  whom  Xenophon  could 
write,  "He  was  so  devout  that  he  never  did  anything  without 
the  coimsel  of  the  gods,  so  just  that  he  never  injured  anyone 
even  in  the  least,  so  truly  master  of  himself  that  he  never 
chose  the  agreeable  instead  of  the  good."  In  a  later  de- 
velopment, which  we  call  Stoicism,  this  philosophy  could 
show  such  spirits  as  Seneca,  Epictetus,  and  Marcus  Aurelius. 
So  closely  do  some  of  the  thoughts  of  Seneca  resemble 
those  of  Paul  that  some  writers  used  to  hold  that  the  former 
had  borrowed  from  the  latter.  The  Greek  philosophy  in  the 
main  was  deeply  religious.  It  was  monotheistic ;  though 
the  gods  are  often  spoken  of,  it  is  one  Divine  Being  that  is 
meant.  It  was  ethical.  Plato  sets  forth  a  noble  ideal  of 
righteousness,  of  the  just  man  who  shows  good  to  foe  as 
well  as  friend.  The  Stoic  picture  of  the  wise  man  is  even 
nobler,  the  man  who  is  strong,  self-contained,  unmoved  by 
outward  conditions  of  good  or  evil,  showing  the  same  spirit 
toward  the  evil  and  the  good. 

But  Grecian  philosophy  too  failed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the   where  it 
day.    It  had  nothing  for  the  common  man.    It  was  a  religion   *^*'^** 
for  the  strong  and  the  wise.    The  common  man  needs  more 
than  a  high  ideal,  he  needs  some  power  to  help  him  reach  it. 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  mystery 
religions 


Their 
character 


Differ  from 
Christianity 


There  was  no  message  here  of  any  God  who  cared  for  men, 
or  who  could  redeem  them.  The  world  was  waiting  for  a 
religion  of  redemption,  a  religion  of  hope  and  help.  The 
Stoic  God  was  like  the  Stoic  wise  man,  serene  and  calm  and 
self-sufificient,  but  unmoved  by  the  needs  of  men. 

3.  The  mystery  religions  professed  to  meet  this  very 
need.  We  may  call  them  the  new  religions,  for  about  this 
time  they  began  to  pour  into  the  Roman  world  from  the 
east.  We  do  not  know  much  about  these  religions,  for  the 
classical  writers  of  Greece  and  Rome  looked  down  upon  these 
cults  as  beneath  their  notice.  It  was  for  the  very  same 
reason  that  these  writers  did  not  mention  Christianity.  Like 
Christianity,  these  were  the  religions  of  the  "lower  classes." 
But  the  real  religious  life  of  the  empire  was  in  these  faiths. 
These,  and  not  the  old  polytheism  or  the  noble  philosophies, 
became  the  real  competitors  of  Christianity. 

Of  these  mystery  religions  there  were  many  kinds,  and 
yet  they  had  certain  aspects  in  common,  (i)  They  were 
usually  founded  upon  some  story,  the  mystery,  the  tale  of 
some  god  and  of  his  life  and  death  and  coming  to  life  again. 
Such  is  the  story  of  Osiris  coming  from  Egypt,  the  story 
of  Mithra  brought  from  Persia,  and  that  of  Dionysius  in 
Greece.  (2)  These  religions  are  no  longer  national.  They 
come  to  men  individually  and  unite  them  in  societies,  just 
as  the  believers  were  joined  together  in  the  Christian 
churches.  (3)  These  religions  were  marked  by  ceremonies 
and  sacraments.  The  members  were  initiated  into  the  myth, 
or  secret  story  of  the  god.  There  were  sacred  meals  and 
washings  and  other  rites,  sometimes  bloody  and  barbarous, 
sometimes  involving  gross  excesses.  (4)  The  great  thought 
was  that  of  redemption.  The  great  end  was  deliverance 
from  evil,  especially  death,  by  means  of  union  with  the  god. 

Looked  at  superficially,  there  is  much  here  that  suggests 
the  new  Christian  religion,  and  men  have  not  been  wanting 
who  held  that  Paul,  for  example,  was  deeply  influenced  in 
his  thought  by  these  faiths.     Here  are  societies  like  the 


THE  ROMAN-GRECIAN  WORLD  19 

churches,  with  sacraments  of  supper  and  baptism  and  the 
story  of  a  dying  and  risen  god.  And  these  rehgions,  hke 
Christianity,  appeal  as  rehgions  of  redemption,  ofit'ering  to 
save  men.  A  very  Httle  study  shows  how  deep  the  differ- 
ences are.  It  is  enough  to  point  out  two.  ( i )  The  salvation 
which  Christianity  offered  was  ethical.  While  these  religions 
relied  upon  rites  and  magic,  Christianity  put  at  the  center 
a  new  spirit  and  a  new  life.  It  met  the  final  problem :  not 
how  to  save  men  from  sorrow,  or  even  from  death,  but  how 
to  save  them  from  sin,  to  make  character.  (2)  These 
religions  built  upon  a  myth,  a  tale ;  Christianity  came  with 
a  great  historic  fact — Christ  as  the  revelation  of  the  will  of 
God,  as  the  bearer  of  the  mercy  and  help  of  God. 


Christianity 
and  the 
Jewish  faith 


The  Semitic 
world 


The  land  of 
the  Jews 


CHAPTER    II 
THE   JEWISH    WORLD 

Greece  and  Rome  and  the  Orient  all  had  their  influence 
upon  Christianity  and  its  development,  but  it  was  the  Jewish 
world  from  which  the  new  faith  directly  sprang.  Its  founder 
was  a  Jew  and  spoke  a  Semitic  tongue.  His  work  was  done 
within  the  narrow  borders  of  the  little  Jewish  province. 
The  early  leaders  of  the  movement,  Paul,  Peter,  and  James, 
were  all  of  the  same  race.  Above  all,  it  was  the  noble  faith 
of  Israel  in  which  Christianity  rooted. 

What  was  the  place  of  the  Jew  in  the  Roman  world? 
The  Jew  was,  first  of  all,  a  part  of  a  larger  Semitic  world. 
Rome's  old  enemies,  the  Carthaginians,  belonged  to  this 
race,  as  did  the  Phoenicians  along  the  east  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean ;  and  other  Semitic  peoples  extended  as 
far  east  as  Babylonia.  Most  of  these  used  a  common 
tongue  called  Aramaic.  The  Jews  at  this  time  used  a 
dialect  of  this  tongue  instead  of  the  old  Hebrew  in  which 
the  Old  Testament  was  written. 

Palestine  was  the  old  home  of  the  Jews.  It  is  usually 
thought  of  as  having  been  shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
world  and  from  the  great  movements  of  history.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  lay  on  the  great  highways  that  joined  the 
nations  of  antiquity.  It  was  a  meeting  place  for  three 
continents.  Along  these  roads  swept  in  turn  the  armies 
of  the  great  conquering  nations,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Egypt, 
Macedonia,  Syria,  Rome.  Israel  had  felt  the  influence  of 
all  these  and  yet  had  preserved  her  individuality.  At  the 
time  of  Jesus'  birth  she  was  ruled  by  Herod  the  Great,  a 
selfish  and  cruel  but  strong  monarch.  The  land  had  been 
separated  by  Rome,  however,  into  several  divisions.  The 
province  of  Judaea  was  the  principal  one.     This  included 

20 


PALESTINE  IN  THE  TIME  OF  JESUS.  4  B.  C  — 30  A.  D. 

(including    the   period   Ol-    HEROD   40-4  B.  CO 


THE  JEWISH  WORLD  21 

Jdumsea  to  the  south,  Judaea  proper  (corresponding  to  the 
old  southern  kingdom),  and  Samaria  (corresponding  to 
the  old  kingdom  of  Israel).  The  chief  Jewish  population 
lay  in  the  two  latter,  which  formed  a  territory  but  little 
larger  than  half  of  the  State  of  Iowa  or  Illinois.  North 
of  Samaria  lay  Galilee,  where  Jesus'  home  was.  It  had 
not  long  been  settled  by  the  Jews  and  was  still  half  Gentile. 
Across  the  Jordan  lay  Peraea,  which  was  joined  with  Galilee 
to  form  a  tetrarchy.  After  Herod  the  Great  the  kingdom 
was  divided.  At  the  time  of  Jesus'  ministry  the  province  of 
Judsea  was  under  the  direct  control  of  the  emperor.  The 
governor  appointed  by  him  was  called  procurator,  and  at 
this  time  was  Pontius  Pilate.  The  tetrarchy  of  Galilee 
and  Peraea  at  the  time  of  the  Gospels  was  under  Herod 
Antipas,  whom  Jesus  called  the  fox.  The  Jews  had  a  very 
large  measure  of  self-government  in  Judaea  under  their 
high  priest  and  Sanhedrin,  or  Senate.  For  the  most  part 
their  religious  customs  and  scruples  were  respected.  But 
the  crushing  burden  of  taxation  was  never  intermitted. 
There  were  poverty  and  distress  in  abundance.  The  hated 
publican  was  always  present  as  a  sign  of  their  bondage, 
and  constantly  smoldering  underneath  all  was  the  religious- 
patriotic  passion  which  flamed  forth  at  last  in  the  hopeless 
revolt  against  Rome  that  ended  in  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem, 

But  the  Jew  was  not  limited  to  Palestine  then  any  more  The  jew  in 
than  he  is  now.  In  their  earlier  history  the  Jews  had  been  the  empire 
carried  off  by  force  into  captivity,  while  in  the  later  years 
vastly  greater  numbers  had  gone  into  other  lands  of  their 
own  free  will.  The  scattered  Jews  were  called  the  Diaspora, 
or  Dispersion.  The  Jew  had  once  been  a  nomad  with 
herds  and  flocks,  as  his  Arab  cousin  is  to-day.  When  he 
settled  in  Canaan  he  became  an  agriculturist.  But  before 
the  time  of  Christ  he  had  begun  the  career  of  tradesman, 
in  which  we  know  him  so  well.  Theti,  as  now,  he  was 
scattered   throughout  the   world.     Over   a  century   before 


22 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  disper- 
sion a  prep- 
aration for 
Christianity 


The  religion 
of  the 
prophets 


Christ  the  Grecian  geographer  Strabo  wrote,  "One  cannot 
readily  find  any  place  in  the  world  which  has  not  received 
this  tribe  and  been  taken  possession  of  by  it."  There  were 
from  four  to  four  and  a  half  million  Jews  in  the  empire, 
probably  not  far  from  a  twelfth  of  the  whole  population. 
Then,  as  now,  they  were  looked  down  upon  and  often 
persecuted.  And  yet  they  enjoyed  special  privileges.  They 
usually  formed  in  each  city  a  special  community  with  some 
measure  of  self-government.  The  synagogue  was  the  center 
of  the  community,  and  over  a  hundred  and  fifty  of  these 
are  known  to  have  been  scattered  throughout  the  empire. 

This  dispersion  of  the  Jews  was  of  the  greatest  signifi- 
cance for  Christianity.  Rome  built  roads  for  the  gospel, 
Greece  gave  it  a  language,  but  the  Jews  had  prepared  the 
approach  to  men's  hearts  and  minds.  Every  Jewish  syna- 
gogue was  a  center  of  religious  influence.  About  it  there 
was  usually  a  fringe  of  converts,  or  proselytes,  or  at  least 
a  number  of  interested  inquirers  and  attendants  who  were 
spoken  of  as  "devout"  or  "God-fearing"  (Acts  lo.  22;  17. 
4).  Despite  the  prejudice  against  the  Jews,  the  pure  faith, 
the  simple  worship,  and  the  high  moral  ideals  must  have 
proven  attractive  to  many  noble  sovils  in  the  Roman  world. 
Thus  the  leaven  of  the  Old  Testament  moral  and  spiritual 
ideals  was  spread  throughout  the  empire,  and  Paul's  first 
and  best  converts  were  among  these  Gentiles  that  had 
already  been  touched  by  Judaism. 

The  reUgion  of  Judaism  is  of  supreme  interest  to  the 
Christian.  Jesus  did  not  profess  to  bring  a  new  faith.  He 
came  to  the  Jews  with  the  faith  of  their  fathers ;  his  God 
was  Jehovah,  "the  God  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob." 
The  highest  expression  of  the  Hebrew  rehgion  was  in  the 
prophets  and  the  psalms.  It  was  not  merely  the  thought 
of  one  God,  such  as  Grecian  philosophy  had  reached;  it 
was  the  character  of  that  God  as  a  God  of  righteousness 
and  mercy.  From  this  conception  of  God  came  the  pure 
and  noble  idea  of  religion ;  for  such  a  God  asks  of  men  not 


THE  JEWISH  WORLD  23 

sacrifice  and  ritual,  but  "to  do  justly,  and  to  love  kindness, 
and  to  walk  humbly  with  God"  (Mic  6.  8).  Upon  this 
religion  of  the  prophets  Jesus  built,  and  we  cannot  under- 
stand Christianity  without  it.  Side  by  side  with  it  in  the 
Old  Testament  is  a  great  system  of  ceremonial  law,  but  with 
this  priestly  religion  Jesus  showed  little  sympathy. 

There  is  a  difference,  however,  between  the  Old  Testa-  Judaism  and 
ment  religion  and  the  religion  of  Jesus'  day,  or  Judaism.  A  ®  ^ 
living  religion  does  not  stand  still.  The  last  four  centuries 
before  Christ  were  of  great  importance  for  the  Jewish 
religion,  though  we  read  little  of  this  history  in  the  Old 
Testament.  The  Jews  had  become  a  part  of  Alexander's 
empire.  The  Greeks,  not  contented  with  political  rule, 
wished  to  change  the  eastern  civilization  and  Hellenize  it. 
At  first  they  made  some  progress  with  the  Jews.  Grecian 
games  and  customs  were  introduced.  There  was  a  strong 
and  growing  liberal  party.  Then  Antiochus,  called  Epi- 
phanes,  tried  to  force  the  process.  He  tried  to  compel  the 
Jews  to  give  up  circumcision,  the  Sabbath,  and  the  books 
of  the  law.  As  a  result  he  merely  strengthened  the  oppo- 
sition and  aroused  the  people.  The  party  of  the  law 
triumphed.  Everything  that  separated  the  Jews  from  the 
nations  was  emphasized.  The  passion  of  the  Jews  and  the 
chief  concern  of  religion  became  more  and  more  the  mere 
keeping  of  the  many  precepts  of  the  law.  All  this  bore  its 
fruits  in  Jesus'  day.  Religion  was  not  fellowship  with  God. 
God  was  far  off.  In  his  place  were  these  laws  which  he  had 
given.  Religion  was  keeping  these  laws,  and  the  endless 
traditions  which  had  grown  up  about  them.  It  was  an 
almost  impossible  burden,  and  many  made  no  attempt  at 
all  to  carry  it   (Acts   15.   10). 

Side  by  side  with  the  law  was  the  hope.     We  might  The  hope 
describe  the  Jewish  religion  as  an  ellipse  with  the  law  and 
the  hope  as  the  two  foci  about  which  it  moved.    This  hope 
we  first  meet  in  the  Old  Testament.     It  is  the  hope  of  the 
Messianic  kingdom,  that  at  some  time  Israel's  enemies  are  to 


24 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Influences 
from  without 


Pharisees 


be  overthrown  and  she  is  to  reign  in  triumph.  Prophets 
like  Isaiah  give  us  a  wonderful  picture  of  the  new  earth 
that  is  to  come,  in  which  peace  and  righteousness  shall 
prevail.  Usually,  though  not  always,  the  prophets  spoke  of 
a  Messiah  who  was  to  bring  in  this  new  kingdom.  Such 
a  hope  might  be  very  broad  and  generous,  as  in  Isa  19.  24, 
25 :  "In  that  day  shall  Israel  be  the  third  with  Egypt  and 
with  Assyria,  a  blessing  in  the  midst  of  the  earth;  for  that 
Jehovah  of  hosts  hath  blessed  them,  saying,  Blessed  be 
Egypt  my  people,  and  Assyria  the  work  of  my  hands,  and 
Israel  mine  inheritance."  But  it  might  be  very  narrow  as 
it  was  in  Jesus'  day,  when  the  Jews  dreamed  only  of  their 
own  triumph  and  thought  not  so  much  of  a  reign  of 
righteousness  as  of  material  blessings. 

The  Jews  had  resisted  every  attempt  to  break  down  their 
peculiar  faith  and  to  engulf  them  in  the  mixture  of  religions 
and  races  which  made  the  Hellenistic-Roman  world.  They 
did  not,  however,  remain  uninfluenced.  This  is  especially 
seen  in  the  changes  that  took  place  in  the  Messianic  hope. 
We  see  this  in  Jewish  writings  of  this  period.  We  hear 
about  angels  and  demons.  The  world  is  divided  into  two 
opposing  forces  of  light  and  darkness,  and  these  are  to  meet 
at  last  in  a  great  conflict  which  is  to  bring  in  the  new  age. 
There  are  to  be  resurrection  and  judgment,  heaven  and  hell. 
These  ideas,  which  are  lacking  in  the  Old  Testament,  show 
the  influence  of  the  East,  and  especially  of  Persia. 

We  have  spoken  so  far  as  though  there  were  no  differences 
of  religious  thought  among  the  Jews.  The  New  Testament 
pages  show  us  that  there  were  different  parties  and  classes. 
First  among  these  are  the  Pharisees.  They  were  the  separa- 
tists, or  Puritans,  of  their  day.  In  the  days  of  the  struggle 
against  Antiochus  and  the  Greek  customs  they  stood  for 
the  law  and  the  separation  of  Israel  from  all  the  pagan  life 
about  them.  They  favored  the  strictest  observance  of  the 
law  and  all  the  rules  that  had  been  built  around  it  by 
tradition.     There  were  not  many  of  them — Josephus  says 


THE  JEWISH  WORLD  25 

six  thousand — but  their  intluence  with  the  people  was  very 
great.  With  them  are  usuall}'  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment the  scribes.  They  were  the  teachers  of  the  law,  the 
lawyers,  and  they  usually  belonged  to  the  Pharisaic  party. 
They  studied  not  so  much  the  law  as  the  mass  of  teachings 
about  the  law  which  had  been  handed  down  from  the  older 
rabbis.  Their  teaching  was  simply  a  remembering  and 
repeating  of  these  traditions,  a  dreary  and  endless  process 
that  sank  more  and  more  to  trifles  and  puerilities,  while 
neglecting  "the  weightier  matters  of  the  law,  justice,  and 
mercy,  and  faith." 

The  Sadducees  were  the  aristocrats,  the  party  of  the  sadducees 
priestly  nobility.  They  were  conservatives  in  theology,  dis- 
regarding the  traditions  of  the  scribes,  holding  only  to  the 
older  written  law,  and  refusing  more  modern  doctrines  like 
those  of  the  resurrection  and  of  spirits.  In  religion,  how- 
ever, they  represented  the  more  liberal  and  worldly  wing. 
They  were  not  so  strict  in  observing  the  law  and  were  quite 
ready  to  make  alliance  with  the  Romans  if  it  would  keep 
them  in  power.  They  had  no  influence  with  the  people  and 
their  power  depended  upon  their  control  of  the  temple. 
After  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  the  city  in  the  year 
70  they  disappear. 

With  all  their  faults  the  Pharisees  were  the  real  repre-  The  failure 
sentatives  of  the  religious  life  of  the  people.     But  if  thev   "f  f  "''6'°° 

°  _  ^       ^  -      o(  law 

show  the  strength  of  Judaism,  they  show  its  weakness  too. 
The  religion  of  the  law  could  not  save  men.  With  those 
who  felt  that  they  had  kept  the  law,  like  the  Pharisees,  it 
gendered  formalism  and  pride.  With  others  it  created 
either  indifference  or  despair ;  the  law  was  no  help,  but  an 
impossible  burden.  Never  did  a  people  show  more  zeal  for 
religion.  "I  bear  them  witness  that  they  have  a  zeal  for 
God,"  says  Paul  (Rom  10.  2).  But  it  could  not  give  men 
peace  of  heart  or  moral  victory.  Judaism  trained  the 
conscience  which  she  could  not  still.  She  stood  far  above 
the  other  religions  of  the  day.    She  saw  that  salvation  must 


26  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

mean  righteousness.  Jeremiah  had  spoken  of  the  law  that 
was  to  be  written  in  men's  hearts  (31.  31-34).  Ezekiel 
had  written  of  the  new  spirit  that  was  to  be  given  (36.  26, 
27).  The  psahnist  had  uttered  his  great  petition,  "Create 
in  me  a  clean  heart,  O  God ;  and  renew  a  right  spirit  within 
me"  (51.  10).  But  the  religion  of  law  could  not  bring  this 
about.    That  remained  for  a  new  faith. 


PART  II 
JESUS 


27 


impression 
upon  his  time 


CHAPTER  III 

JOHN    THE   BAPTIST 

There  is  no  more  striking  figure  in  the  Bible  than  that  John's 
of  John  the  Baptist.  Only  a  few  words  are  given  to  him  in 
the  Gospels,  and  yet  how  clear  the  picture  stands  before  us : 
the  rude  figure  from  the  desert,  the  stern  message  of  judg- 
ment, the  thronging  multitudes,  the  tragic  end.  For  Chris- 
tian thought  he  has  been  overshadowed  b\-  Jesus  ;  on  his  own 
age  he  made  a  profound  impression.  He  had  no  pleasant 
doctrine,  and  yet  from  Jerusalem  and  all  Judaea  there 
flocked  to  his  preaching  the  people  of  every  class — common 
folks  and  proud  Pharisees,  Sadducean  aristocrats  and  plain 
soldiers.  His  name  was  upon  every  lip  when  Jesus  was  still 
unknown.  Men  asked  one  another  whether  he  could  be  the 
Messiah.  His  stern  words  reached  the  palace  and  led  at 
last  to  imprisonment  and  death.  Yet  even  after  his  execution 
men  could  not  think  him  dead,  and  the  first  reports  of 
Jesus'  work  made  them  ask  whether  John  was  not  risen 
from  the  dead  (Mark  6.  14;  8.  28).  Paul  found  disciples  of 
his  as  remote  as  Ephesus,  one  of  whom  became  a  notable 
leader  in  the  church  (Acts  18.  25;  19.  1-7).  The  tragedy 
of  the  end  helped  to  deepen  the  impression.  Apparently 
at  the  height  of  his  power,  Herod  laid  hold  upon  him. 
The  Gospels  say  it  was  because  John  had  denounced  Herod's 
sin.  Josephus  declares  that  Herod  feared  lest  John,  with 
his  great  influence  over  the  people,  might  lead  them  to  some 
rebellion.  Perhaps  both  reasons  entered  in.  In  any  case, 
the  prison  walls  never  opened  for  John  again,  and  his 
murder  must  have  followed  soon. 

We  cannot  class  John  with  any  circle  or  party  of  his   '^^^  prophet 
day.    He  was,  as  Jesus  said,  a  prophet.    In  him  there  came  to 
life  again  that  great  line  of  men  who  were  Israel's  con- 

29 


30 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  message 


The  meaning 
of  John's 
baptism 


science  and  Israel's  faith,  and  whose  Uke  no  other  nation 
of  antiquity  can  show.  Like  them,  he  came  with  no  pomp 
or  heralding.  His  message  constituted  his  credentials.  He 
might  have  said  with  Amos,  "The  Lord  Jehovah  hath 
spoken;  who  can  but  prophesy?"  John  was  a  preacher, 
"the  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness." 

The  message  of  John  is  essentially  that  of  the  great 
prophets.  The  great  foundation  for  him,  as  for  them,  is 
the  truth  that  religion  means  righteousness.  But  there  is 
an  urgency  in  John's  message  that  comes  from  a  special 
cause :  the  kingdom  of  God  is  at  hand.  To  the  Jews  that  was 
a  welcome  word.  It  meant  that  Jehovah  was  coming  to 
judge  the  nations  and  deliver  his  people.  The  rule  of  the 
hated  Romans  was  to  be  overthrown  and  Israel's  glory 
established.  Into  this  easy-going  hope  John  cuts  with  the 
sharp  sword  of  his  word:  "Repent  ye.  The  judgment  is 
coming,  but  it  will  not  be  upon  the  Gentiles.  Rather  it  will 
be  a  sifting  of  Israel,  and  the  test  will  be  righteousness. 
The  Jews  will  not  be  saved  because  they  have  kept  the 
form  of  the  law.  The  Messiah  is  at  hand  with  his  judg- 
ment. He  will  lay  his  ax  at  the  root  of  every  evil  tree.  He 
will  winnow  the  wheat  from  the  chaff  with  his  fan.  My 
baptism  is  with  water.  His  will  be  with  fire  that  shall  burn 
up  all  the  dross.  The  rule  of  God  is  at  hand;  repent  and 
make  ready." 

It  is  in  the  light  of  this  message  that  we  are  to  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  the  baptism  to  which  John  invited  the 
people.  This  was  something  different  from  the  practice 
of  the  prophets.  Was  John,  after  preaching  righteousness, 
falling  back  into  the  idea  that  a  mere  ceremony  could  have 
value  in  itself?  There  is  no  reason  for  thinking  this.  The 
form  itself  was  familiar  to  the  Jews  as  a  symbol  of  cleansing 
in  case  of  ceremonial  defilement  (Lev  15  and  elsewhere). 
It  was  also  used  when  a  Gentile  convert,  or  proselyte,  was 
enrolled.  Both  these  meanings  appear  with  John,  though 
not  as  mere  ceremony.    It  was  first  a  sign  of  cleansing,  of 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST 


3^ 


to  the 
message 


repentance  and  turning  from  evil ;  and  second  an  enroll- 
ment, a  consecration  to  the  new  rule  of  God  that  was 
at  hand.  It  was  the  outward  expression  of  the  accept- 
ance of  his  message :  Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of  God  is 
at  hand. 

The  remarkable  response  of  the  people  to  John's  message  The  response 
was  due  first  to  its  declaration  that  the  kingdom  of  God  was 
at  their  doors.  Chafing  under  the  hated  Roman  rule,  no 
wonder  that  they  flocked  to  him  when  the  rumor  of  this 
message  spread.  But  the  deeper  and  more  lasting  response 
was  awakened  by  his  call  to  repentance.  With  all  her 
formalism  Israel  had  a  conscience,  and  a  conscience  like 
that  of  no  other  nation  of  her  day.  True,  her  religion  had 
become  largely  legalism  and  her  prophets  had  lost  their 
first  place,  but  their  work  had  not  been  in  vain.  She  did 
not  want  such  preaching,  any  more  than  Florence  wanted 
Savonarola,  but,  like  Florence,  she  answered  to  it,  at  least 
for  a  time.  John's  message  was  fearless  and  searching. 
He  pointed  out  definite  sins.  And  his  appeal  gained  tre- 
mendous power  because  he  pictured  the  Messiah  and  his 
judgment  at  the  door. 

The  hmitations  of  John's  work  are  closely  joined  to  its  John's 
strength.  He  represents  the  old  at  its  highest.  The  moun-  "'°'**"°''* 
tain  peaks  of  the  Old  Testament  are  the  prophets,  and  in 
John  we  hear  their  message  again.  But  John  did  not  get 
beyond  the  old.  Men  needed  the  message  of  sin  and  judg- 
ment ;  but  they  needed  something  more — a  message  of 
deliverance.  John  had  gotten  no  farther  than  Paul  before 
his  conversion.  Paul  too  knew  of  law  and  righteousness 
and  judgment.  But  if  these  were  not  enough  for  Paul, 
the  man  of  moral  earnestness  and  mighty  will,  how  could 
they  save  the  throngs  of  common  folks  who  came  to  John's 
preaching?  That  was  what  Jesus  meant  when  he  said  that 
they  that  were  but  little  in  the  kingdom  of  God  were  greater 
than  John.  They  knew  the  God  of  mercy  and  had  learned 
to  say,  "Our  Father." 


32  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

John  and  Johii  himself  knew  that  his  work  was  not  final,  but  a  mere 

preparation:  "He  that  cometh  after  me  is  mightier  than  I." 
How  much  farther  John  went  we  cannot  know  surely.  He 
did  not  cease  his  work  after  Jesus'  appearance.  He  had 
disciples  who  continued  faithful,  and  that,  too,  long  after 
his  death  (Acts  19.  1-7).  From  his  prison  he  sends  a 
message  to  Jesus  by  his  disciples  asking  whether  he  be  the 
expected  Messiah  or  no.  Jesus'  own  estimate  of  John  is 
significant  (Luke  7.  24-28).  He  sees  his  courage,  earnest- 
ness, and  independence,  and  pays  the  remarkable  tribute: 
"Among  them  that  are  born  of  women  there  is  none  greater 
than  John."    But  the  meaning  of  his  work  is  preparation: 

"This  is  he  of  whom  it  is  written, 
Behold  I  send  my  messenger  before  thy  face, 
Who  shall  prepare  thy  way  before  thee." 

John's  greatest  work  was  to  make  ready  the  way  for  Jesus 
and  to  call  attention  to  him. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Birth:  Luke  i.  S-25,  57-66,  80.  Ministry:  Luke  3.  1-20;  Mark 
I.  1-8;  Matt  3.  1-12.  Imprisonment:  Mark  6.  14-29-  Jesus  and 
John:    Luke  7.   18-25. 

Read  carefully  the  reports  of  John's  preaching  and  make  a  list 
of  the  things  he  condemned  and  of  the  things  he  demanded. 

Read  Amos  3  and  4.  What  points  of  resemblance  are  there 
between  John's  preaching  and  that  of   Amos? 

Write  out  a  simple  statement  of  the  facts  of  John's  life  as  learned 
from  the  Gospels. 


CHAPTER  IV 
BIRTH  AND  CHILDHOOD 

"John  Stuart  Mill,  the  great  philosopher  of  positivism,  jesusas 
once  said,  that  humanity  could  not  be  too  often  reminded  of  "JJJjy^"*'*' 
the  fact  that  there  was  once  a  man  by  the  name  of  Soc- 
rates. He  was  right;  but  it  is  more  important  to  remind 
humanity  again  and  again  that  once  there  stood  in  her 
midst  a  man  by  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ."  To  understand 
the  beginnings  of  the  Christian  religion  one  must  first  study 
Jesus.  It  is  not  necessary  to  construct  a  biography.  The 
Gospels  do  not  really  afford  the  material  for  this.  We 
may  study  his  life  in  broad  outline,  but  the  great  aim  is 
to  get  a  picture  of  Jesus  himself,  what  he  taught,  what  he 
wrought,  and  what  his  spirit  and  purpose  in  life  were.  This 
simple  life,  that  came  to  so  early  a  close,  was  the  turning- 
point  of  human  history.  What  was  this  life  to  have  produced 
this  result? 

The  story  of  Jesus'  birth  is  given  by  only  two  of  the  four  Matthew's 
Gospels,  and  these  two  give  us  quite  distinct  accounts.  ^*^°'^* 
]\Iatthew's  story  is  as  follows :  Joseph  is  informed  by  an 
angel  that  Mary,  to  whom  he  is  betrothed,  shall  bear  a 
child.  To  the  mother  and  child  in  Bethlehem  (nothing  is 
said  of  Nazareth)  there  come  certain  Magi  with  gifts,  led 
there  by  a  star.  Warned  by  an  angel,  Joseph  flees  to  Egypt, 
while  Herod  slays  the  little  children  of  Bethlehem  in  the 
effort  to  kill  the  one  that  "was  born  King  of  the  Jews." 
Joseph  returns  after  Herod's  death,  but  fears  to  go  to 
Judaea  on  account  of  Archelaus  and  so  settles  at  Nazareth 
in  Galilee  (Matt  i.  i8  to  2.  2T,). 

Luke's   story  is   longer  and   introduces  a   larger   circle.  Luke's  story 
Here  it  is  Mary  that  is  told  of  the  wonderful  child  who 
is  to  be  the  deliverer  of  his  people.     From  their  village 

33 


34 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  two 

stories 

compared 


The  meaning 
of  the  story 


The  virgin 
birth 


in  Nazareth,  Joseph  and  Mary  go  to  their  ancestral  home 
at  Bethlehem  near  Jerusalem  because  of  a  census  taken 
by  the  Romans.  Here  she  brings  forth  her  child,  while 
simple  shepherds,  who  have  seen  a  light  and  heard  a  won- 
derful song,  come  to  worship  from  the  nearby  fields.  In 
Bethlehem  they  remain  until  they  have  fulfilled  the  re- 
quirements of  the  law,  first  circumcising  the  child,  then 
after  thirty-three  days  presenting  the  child  in  the  temple 
and  offering  for  the  mother  the  simple  sacrifice  that  was 
asked  of  the  poor.  This  done,  they  return  to  Nazareth 
(Luke  2.  1-39). 

About  these  stories  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  discus- 
sion, and  principally  for  two  reasons :  first,  because  of  the 
differences  between  them ;  second,  because  of  the  story  of 
the  virgin  birth.  As  to  the  former,  the  differences  include 
not  only  those  in  the  two  stories  just  told  but  in  the  gen- 
ealogies which  both  give.  It  is  plain  that  the  writers  had 
formed  quite  different  pictures  as  to  how  the  birth  of  Jesus 
occurred.  How  far  they  can  be  reconciled  is  not  really  an 
important  matter.  They  agree  as  to  the  parents  of  the 
child,  the  place  of  the  birth  and  later  home,  and  the  won- 
derful manner  and  meaning  of  that  birth. 

What  is  more  important  is  to  appreciate  the  beautiful 
simplicity  of  the  story,  especially  as  told  by  Luke.  There 
is  no  stronger  witness  to  its  essential  truth.  It  is  not  such 
a  story  as  men  would  have  invented  for  the  coming  of  a 
king.  The  humble  parents,  the  rude  stable,  the  simple 
shepherds,  the  quiet  return  home  again — nothing  could  be 
simpler,  more  human  than  this.  The  essential  faith  of  the 
early  church  is  set  forth  here  in  truest  manner.  For  that 
church  the  life  of  Jesus  was  first  of  all  a  normal  human 
life,  just  as  is  shown  here.  Secondly,  it  was  a  life  from 
God,  the  life  in  which  God  came  to  men. 

As  to  the  story  of  the  virgin  birth,  it  has  been  pointed 
out  that  the  rest  of  the  New  Testament  is  silent  upon  this, 
and  that  in  Luke  there  is  but  a  single  clause  that  refers 


BIRTH  AND  CHILDHOOD  35 

to  it.  Two  points  should  be  made  clear  here.  One  is 
that  the  virgin  birth  was  evidently  not  essential  for  the 
faith  of  the  early  church.  Paul  and  John,  who  say  nothing 
concerning  it,  are  the  two  writers  who  give  us  the  highest 
conception  of  the  divinity  of  Jesus.  The  other  is,  that  to  the 
church  it  has  always  seemed  the  fitting  conception  of  the 
mode  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  It  is  always  to  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  it  is  the  character  and  life  of 
Jesus  which  lead  us  to  believe  in  the  virgin  birth,  and 
not  the  virgin  birth  which  leads  us  to  believe  in  Jesus. 

The  exact  date  of  Jesus'  birth  is  not  known,  neither  The  date  of 
month  nor  day  nor  year.  It  was  not  till  the  sixth  century  *^*  ^"*^ 
that  men  began  to  date  events  from  the  birth  of  Christ.  It 
was  a  Roman  monk,  Dionysius  the  Little,  that  proposed  it. 
His  reckoning  was  not  accurate,  and  the  date  of  the  birth 
is  probably  about  5  B.  C.  So  much  is  known,  that  the  civ- 
ilized world  to-day,  in  every  event  that  its  histories  record 
and  every  document  of  business  or  of  news,  pays  tribute  to 
that  humble  birth  as  the  turning  point  of  history. 

Of  the  home  life  of  Jesus  there  is  little  to  be  said.  His  The  Nazareth 
father  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Gospels,  and  tradition  says 
that  he  died  early.  That  must  have  meant  burdens  of  labor 
and  responsibility  for  Jesus  as  the  oldest  son.  There  were 
at  least  seven  children  (]\Iatt  13.  55,  56),  five  of  them  sons. 
It  must  have  been  a  very  humble  home,  probably  but  a 
single  room,  and  that  used  for  the  carpenter  work  as  well. 
But  it  must  have  been  a  very  rich  home.  When  we  think 
of  the  Jews  of  Jesus'  day,  we  are  apt  to  call  up  the  New 
Testament  pictures  of  the  formal  Pharisees  or  the  worldly 
Sadducees.  The  first  pages  of  Luke  show  us  another 
circle.  Here  are  Elisabeth  and  Zacharias,  Simeon  and 
Anna,  Joseph  and  Mary.  The  songs  of  Mary  and  Zach- 
arias and  the  words  of  Elisabeth  and  Simeon  show  us  the 
atmosphere  in  which  these  people  moved,  the  simple  piety 
and  the  earnest  expectation  with  which  they  looked  for  the 
day  of  deliverance  of  their  nation.     There  must  have  been 


36 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  educa- 
tion of  a 
Jewish  boy 


many  such  simple,  quiet  lives  in  which  the  noblest  spirit  of 
the  Old  Testament  psalms  and  prophetic  writings  lived  on. 
And  such  was  Jesus'  home.  We  are  told  that  Joseph  was  a 
just,  or  kind,  man.  A  devout  man  he  must  have  been.  He 
gave  his  sons  the  old  patriarchal  names:  Jesus  (or  Joshua), 
James  (or  Jacob),  Joseph,  Simon,  and  Judas.  Jesus'  own 
words  seem  to  give  us  suggestions  of  what  that  home  life 
was.  When  he  prays  in  the  garden  he  uses  the  simple 
word  that  Alary  taught  him  to  call  Joseph  as  a  little  child, 
the  Aramaic  word  for  father,  "Abba."  He  cannot  think  of 
a  father  who  would  give  his  child  a  stone  for  bread.  Many 
of  his  illustrations  must  have  been  taken  from  the  old 
home:  the  dough  swelling  and  bubbling  with  the  leaven, 
the  housewife  sweeping  the  dark  room  for  the  lost  coin, 
the  hungry  children  crowding  around  for  a  bit  of  bread, 
the  father  abed  at  night  with  his  children  about  him  in 
the  one  room  of  the  house  and  unwilling  to  get  up  for  the 
neighbor  who  comes  to  borrow  a  loaf. 

We  can  form  some  picture  also  of  the  training  which 
Jesus  received.  No  other  nation  had  such  a  system  of  edu- 
cation as  the  Jews.  It  was  for  all  children,  not  for  the 
few.  The  theme  of  instruction  was  the  law.  "Ask  one  of  us 
concerning  the  laws,"  says  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian, 
"and  he  can  recite  them  all  more  readily  than  he  could 
repeat  his  own  name."  The  mother  began  the  work  at 
home,  which  was  taken  up  by  the  father,  and  probably 
carried  on  in  the  elementary  village  school  connected  with 
the  synagogue.  The  first  words  that  Jesus  thus  learned  at 
home  were  probably  the  noble  opening  words  from  the 
Shema,  or  confession  of  faith :  "Hear,  O  Israel :  Jehovah 
our  God  is  one  Jehovah :  and  thou  shalt  love  Jehovah  thy 
God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all 
thy  might"  (Deut  6.  4).  The  various  festivals  of  the 
Jewish  year,  marking  the  great  events  in  Jewish  history, 
were  a  part  of  this  education,  as  were  also  the  regular 
gatherings  at  the  synagogue.     Luke  tells  how  Jesus  in  his 


BIRTH  AND  CHILDHOOD  ^j 

early  ministry  "came  to  Nazareth,  where  he  had  been 
brought  up :  and  he  entered,  as  his  custom  was,  into  the 
synagogue  on  the  Sabbath  day." 

At  the  same  time  it  is  important  to  reahze  that  Jesus  The  influence 
was  brought  up  in  GaHlee,  not  in  Jerusalem  or  Judaea. 
There  was  a  wide  gulf  between  the  religion  of  the  prophets 
and  psalmists  that  filled  his  heart,  and  the  deadly  formal- 
ism, the  slavery  of  the  letter,  the  narrow  bigotry  and  pride 
that  opposed  him  when  he  came  to  work  as  a  man.  There 
is  a  humanness  in  his  spirit,  a  breadth  in  his  outlook,  a 
simplicity  and  directness  in  his  teaching,  that  we  cannot 
associate  with  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  or  the  classrooms  of 
the  rabbis. 

One  incident  from  the  boyhood  days  tells  us  how  deeply  The  first 
the  training  took  hold  upon  this  youth.  At  the  age  of  jg^^sriem 
twelve  or  thirteen  years  the  Jewish  boy  became  a  man  in 
matters  of  religion  and  assumed  the  full  duties  of  the  faith. 
One  of  these  was  the  journey  thrice  a  year  to  the  great 
feasts  at  Jerusalem.  The  story  of  Jesus'  first  visit  is  the 
only  break  in  the  silence  that  rests  upon  the  years  from 
infancy  to  the  day  when  he  began  his  ministry.  Later 
legends  tell  of  a  precocious  child  confounding  the  learned 
doctors  in  the  temple  by  superhuman  knowledge.  Luke's 
picture  is  very  simple,  though  deeply  suggestive.  It  is 
that  of  a  boy  already  thoughtful  about  the  deep  things  of 
life,  and  so  stirred  by  the  city  and  the  temple  and  the 
solemn  ceremonies  of  the  passover  feast  that  he  forgets 
parents  and  all  as  he  tarries  in  the  temple.  His  one  passion 
is  already  the  business  of  his  Father.  But  it  is  all  normal 
and  wholesome.  He  goes  back  as  the  dutiful  son,  and  his 
life  unfolds  as  a  boy's  life  should,  growing  in  mind  and 
body,  in  the  esteem  of  parents  and  friends,  and  in  fellowship 
with  God  (Luke  2.  40-52). 

One  other  element  in  his  training  must  be  noted.  As  The  training 
the  boy  grew  older,  he  came  to  know  a  larger  world  than  '^^^^  ^^^^^^ 
his  home  and  village.     We  know  how  deeply,  the  world  of 


38  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

nature  impressed  Jesus.  Paul  speaks  of  cities  and  soldiers 
and  athletic  contests ;  Jesus  of  birds  and  flowers,  of  fields 
and  flocks,  of  storms  and  sunsets.  The  Galilee  of  his  day 
was  a  beautiful  and  most  fertile  country.  And  then  there 
was  the  larger  world  of  men.  It  has  been  a  common 
mistake  to  think  of  Nazareth  as  a  quiet  spot  far  from 
the  life  of  the  great  world,  where  Jesus  was  nurtured  in 
seclusion.  That  is  far  from  the  truth.  The  village  itself 
was  not  large,  perhaps  of  but  a  few  thousand  inhabitants, 
and  it  was  hid  away  in  a  basin  of  the  hills.  But  above  it 
rose  the  crest  of  these  hills  some  fifteen  hundred  feet  higher 
than  the  sea  level.  How  often  Jesus  must  have  looked  out 
from  those  heights  upon  "the  kingdoms  of  the  world,  and 
the  glory  of  them."  The  smiling  waters  of  Galilee  lay 
scarce  more  than  fifteen  miles  to  the  east.  Only  a  few 
miles  farther  to  the  northwest  was  the  Mediterranean.  Near 
by  ran  north  and  south  the  great  highway  which  for  cen- 
turies joined  the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Egypt  and  Babylonia, 
along  which  so  many  armies  had  marched  to  victory  or 
defeat.  Just  below,  to  the  south,  was  the  great  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  where  so  many  of  Israel's  battles  had  been  fought. 
All  about  was  the  teeming  life  of  Galilee,  with  its  numberless 
villages  and  cities.  The  Roman  world  had  crowded  in 
here.  Jesus  heard  the  Greek  language  spoken  and  the 
Scriptures  read  in  the  Greek  translation,  and  must  have 
known  the  language  himself,  though  he  probably  preferred 
the  Aramaic.  From  the  hills  above  his  home  he  must  have 
seen  at  times  the  Roman  legions  on  their  march,  and  Roman 
rulers  with  their  brilliant  following.  Something  of  what 
happened  in  the  great  Roman  world  he  knew,  for  in  one 
of  his  parables  he  uses  the  incident  of  the  embassy  that 
was  sent  after  Archelaus,  when  this  son  of  Herod  went  to 
Rome  to  get  his  kingdom. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Matt  I.  i8  to  2.  2i;  Luke  i.  26  to  2.  52. 

Write  out  the  incidents  of  the  annunciation  and  birth  as  given 


BIRTH  AND  CHILDHOOD  39 

respectively  by  Matthew  and  Luke.     Note  the  apparent  differences 
and  points  of  agreement. 

Read  carefully  the  songs  of  Mary,  Zacharias,  and  Simeon.  What 
book  of  writings  in  the  Old  Testament  do  they  resemble?  What 
is  their  central  thought  or  interest?  What  do  they  suggest  as  to 
the  character  of  these  persons?  With  the  aid  of  a  Bible  that  has 
marginal  references,  make  a  list  of  the  Old  Testament  passages  that 
are  used  or  alluded  to.     Compare  Mary's  song  with  i  Sam  2.  i-io. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  CALL  AND  THE  TEMPTATION 


The  years 
of  quiet 


The  spirit  of 
the  young 
man 


Jesus  and 
the  preaching 
of  John 


Among  the  hearers  of  John  there  had  been  many  who 
came  down  from  GaHlee.  Jesus  had  been  among  that  num- 
ber. It  was  John's  word  that  called  him  forth  at  last 
from  the  quiet  of  Nazareth  to  begin  his  life  task.  He  was 
about  thirty  when  that  work  began.  What  had  taken 
place  in  these  years  of  boyhood  and  young  manhood?  Of 
all  that  time  since  he  was  twelve  we  have  no  record  of  a 
word.  The  life  that  we  do  know,  however,  seems  to 
make  some  things  clear  about  these  earlier  years. 

In  the  first  place,  Jesus'  life  shows  no  sign  of  any  moral 
break  in  it.  If  we  turn  to  great  leaders  like  Paul  and 
Augustine  and  Luther,  we  get  a  very  different  picture. 
Their  Christian  life  stands  forth  from  an  earlier  back- 
ground of  doubt  and  sin.  They  bear  the  marks  of  struggle 
and  the  scars  of  past  defeat.  That  is  true  of  all  the  great 
spiritual  leaders — except  Jesus.  The  spirit  that  is  shown  in 
the  boy  in  the  temple  filled  his  young  manhood:  the  sense 
of  a  close  fellowship  with  his  Father,  and  the  passion  to 
do  God's  will.  With  these  two  there  was  a  third:  the 
growing  conviction  as  to  the  deliverance  that  Jehovah  was 
to  bring  his  people.  He  shared  that  hope  with  the  rest 
of  the  nation,  but  with  one  great  difference:  with  them  it 
was  the  deliverance  from  the  rule  of  Rome,  while  Jesus 
saw  that  it  was  the  rule  of  evil  in  men's  lives  that  was  to  be 
overthrown.  How  often  at  dusk  or  dawn  had  he  looked 
out  from  the  hill  above  Nazareth  and  asked  what  his  part 
was  to  be  in  God's  plan. 

No  wonder  that  the  news  of  John's  work  found  a  response 
in  him.  "The  kingdom  is  at  hand."  John  was  preaching 
not  the  overthrow  of  Rome  but  repentance  for  sin.     And 

40 


THE  CALL  AND  THE  TEMPTATION  41 

the  people  were  answering  to  the  call.  This  was  God's 
doing.  To  Jesus  it  was  a  call  to  be  about  his  Father's 
business.  And  so  he  joins  John's  hearers  and  offers  him- 
self for  baptism.  Many  have  wondered  how  Jesus  could 
offer  himself  for  a  baptism  of  repentance.  But  we  have 
seen  that  this  was  not  the  only  or  the  final  meaning  of 
the  rite.  John  vras  another  Elijah,  summoning  the  people 
to  stand  for  this  coming  Jehovah  or  against  him.  Jesus 
was  ready  to  stand  with  John  and  with  them,  only  it  did 
not  mean  for  him  repentance  from  an  evil  past  as  it  did 
with  them.  He  was  but  showing  in  public  the  pledge  of 
allegiance  which  had  ruled  his  whole  life. 

Mark's  account  of  what  happened  at  the  baptism  is  the  The  baptism 
simplest  as  it  is  the  oldest.  "And  straightway  coming  out  ^ 
of  the  water,  he  saw  the  heavens  rent  asunder,  and  the 
Spirit  as  a  dove  descending  upon  him:  and  a  voice  came 
out  of  the  heavens,  Thou  art  my  beloved  Son,  in  thee  I 
am  well  pleased"  (Mark  i.  10,  11).  A  young  man's  greatest 
question  is  that  of  his  life  calling.  Not  till  he  was  thirty 
had  the  answer  come  to  Jesus,  for  there  is  no  sign  that 
he  knew  before  this  time  that  he  was  to  be  the  deliverer  of 
the  people.  He  had  heard  John's  stirring  words,  had  looked 
at  the  throngs  that  bent  under  them,  and  had  realized  that 
the  day  of  deliverance  was  at  hand.  Now  as  he  came  out 
of  the  water  he  heard  his  call,  "Thou  art  my  beloved  Son." 
These  words  are  taken  from  the  second  psalm.  It  was  a 
Messianic  psalm  for  the  Jews,  and  the  Son  meant  the  Mes- 
siah. It  was  the  Father's  call  to  him:  "The  kingdom  is  at 
hand,  and  thou  art  my  Son;  thou  art  to  be  the  deliverer, 
the  Messiah." 

Jesus  had  always  lived  in  fellowship  with  God.     Now  The  forty 
there  came  a  new  sense  of  God's  presence  to  his  soul,  stirred  ^^^  °* 

.       .         prayer 

to  its  depths  at  the  same  time  by  the  sense  of  what  his  life 
was  to  be.  He  must  find  solitude  to  meditate.  Mark  says 
that  he  was  "driven"  by  the  Spirit  into  the  wilderness.  It 
was  the  same  need  that  drove  him  again  and  again  in  later 


42 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The 
temptation 


The  story 
from  Jesus 


Jesus'  use 
of  picture 
language 


(lays  to  places  of  quiet.  When  he  chooses  his  disciples, 
in  the  hour  before  his  arrest,  and  at  other  great  turning 
points  of  his  life,  we  find  him  on  the  mountainside  or  be- 
neath the  trees  in  prayer.  So  at  this  time  he  goes  forth  to 
gather  strength  and  to  meditate  upon  the  work  he  is  to  do. 

Out  of  this  last  comes  his  temptation.  We  have  it  in 
strange  picture  form.  The  devil  appears  to  him.  He  bids 
Jesus  turn  stones  to  bread,  lest  he  perish  from  hunger. 
He  carries  him  to  a  temple  pinnacle  and  bids  him  cast 
himself  down.  He  shows  him  from  a  mountain  the  king- 
doms of  the  world  and  offers  them  to  Jesus  if  he  will 
worship  him. 

First  of  all  we  must  remember  that  this  story  could  come 
only  from  Jesus  himself.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  he  told 
it  to  his  disciples  in  those  last  days  when  he  had  set  his 
face  to  go  to  Jerusalem.  They  saw  his  danger  from  his 
foes.  He  was  teaching  them  that  death  might  come,  that 
it  was  his  duty  simply  to  do  God's  will,  and  that  it  was  such 
self-sacrifice  that  was  to  bring  in  the  kingdom  and  not  any 
outward  triumph.  At  such  a  time  he  may  have  told  them 
the  story  of  his  own  first  period  of  temptation.  Studied 
thoughtfully,  it  is  a  story  of  supreme  value  for  our  under- 
standing of  Jesus'  life  and  work.  It  is  a  bit  of  autobiography 
in  which  Jesus  reveals  his  inmost  self. 

We  must  remember,  in  the  second  place,  that  it  is  a  pic- 
ture form  which  Jesus  uses.  This  picture  language  was 
Jesus'  common  method  as  a  teacher,  and  he  uses  it  not 
simply  in  the  parables.  He  speaks  of  the  devil  here  just 
as  when  he  says  to  Peter,  "Get  thee  behind  me,  Satan," 
and  for  the  same  reason,  for  he  sees  in  Peter's  suggestion 
the  same  evil  that  he  discerned  in  the  tempting  thoughts 
that  came  to  him  in  the  wilderness.  Thus,  at  another  time, 
when  he  welcomed  back  the  disciples  who  had  been  out 
preaching  and  healing,  Jesus  did  not  say,  "This  is  the  be- 
ginning of  the  overthrow  of  evil."  He  said,  "I  beheld 
Satan  fallen  as  lightning  from  heaven."     The   significant 


THE  CALL  AND  THE  TEMPTATION  43 

fact  is  not  that  there  was  a  literal  bodily  Satan  whom  Jesus 
allowed  to  carry  him  to  temple  and  mountain,  but  that 
Jesus  in  the  thoughts  and  conflicts  of  those  days  saw  through 
many  of  the  ideas  which  the  people  held  as  to  the  Mes- 
siah, and  knew  that  they  were  evil. 

What,  then,  was  the  conflict?    The  question  which  con-  The  conflict: 
cerned  Jesus  in  those  days  was  this :     What  is  the  nature  ^"'^  should 

11  -1  he  do  his 

of  the  kingdom  to  be,  and  how  shall  the  Messiah  do  his  work? 
work?  What  the  people  expected  we  know.  The  enemies 
of  Israel  were  to  be  cast  down.  Israel  was  to  be  delivered 
from  want  and  oppression.  She  was  to  have  her  place 
of  rule  and  glory,  and  the  nations  were  to  bow  down  be- 
fore her.  This  was  not  the  picture  in  the  heart  of  Jesus. 
It  was  not  this  that  attracted  him  to  John.  The  kingdom 
of  God,  or  the  kingship  of  God,  meant  God's  rule  in  the 
hearts  of  men,  as  well  as  the  overthrow  of  all  evil  and  suf- 
fering and  wrong  in  the  world.  But  in  one  point  he  agreed 
with  them:  God  was  to  establish  this  kingdom  and  the 
Messiah  was  to  proclaim  it  and  bring  it  in.  And  so  the 
personal  question  came  at  the  end  of  his  meditation :  How 
was  the  Messiah  to  do  his  work  and  what  was  to  become 
of  him? 

The  order  of  the  temptations  we  do  not  know.    Matthew  jesus  wiii 
and  Luke  differ.    Both  Matthew  and  Luke  susfsfest  that  the  °°*  ^'"'.  ^^^ 


bb^ 


people  by 

temptation  as  to  the  bread  came  at  the  end  of  the  forty  working 
days.  We  will  put  this  last  and  follow  Matthew  in  the  •^a<=i«s 
other  two.  If  such  be  the  order,  then  the  first  question 
was  this:  How  shall  I  announce  myself  to  the  people?  If 
I  am  to  preach  to  them  and  lead  them,  I  must  prove  that 
I  am  the  Messiah.  Is  it  not  written  of  the  Messiah,  that 
Jehovah's  angels  will  keep  him,  lest  he  dash  his  foot  against 
a  stone?  (Psa  91.  11,  12.)  Why  not  cast  myself  down  from 
a  temple  pinnacle  before  the  multitudes?  They  will  see 
that  I  am  the  Messiah  and  follow  me.  But  Jesus'  clear 
vision  sees  that  such  a  plan  is  of  the  Evil  One.  That  would 
be  tempting  God,  not  trusting  him.     It  would  be  gaining 


44 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Jesus  will 
not  win  by 
compromise 


Not  self- 
saving,  but 
trust  and 
obedience 


an  outward  following,  not  a  spiritual  allegiance.  Jesus 
refused  to  be  a  mere  miracle-worker.  He  used  his  power  to 
help  men,  not  to  dazzle  them. 

The  next  question  also  concerned  the  method  of  his  work. 
How  could  God's  kingdom  be  established  in  the  world  if 
all  the  power  of  the  world  were  against  it  ?  Why  not  make 
some  concessions  at  the  beginning,  perhaps  make  some  sort 
of  alliance  with  the  regular  leaders  of  the  people?  Or  it 
might  be  possible  to  enlist  the  thousands  who  were  ready 
to  follow  a  leader  if  they  saw  it  meant  Israel's  triumph. 
Once  gained,  it  would  be  time  enough  to  teach  them  the 
higher  spiritual  truth  of  the  kingdom.  Many  leaders  have 
yielded  to  this  temptation  of  compromise.  Not  so  Jesus. 
He  saw  that  this  was  simply  the  prince  of  the  world  offer- 
ing him  its  kingdoms  if  he  would  fall  down  and  worship. 
"Thou  shalt  worship  the  Lord  thy  God,"  was  his  answer. 
His  trust  would  be  absolutely  in  God,  and  in  God  only. 

These  temptations  must  not  be  conceived  as  coming  at 
one  time.  They  were  at  the  heart  of  the  whole  matter  which 
filled  his  mind  in  those  forty  days.  The  third  temptation, 
we  are  told,  came  at  the  close  of  this  period.  He  had  for- 
gotten about  food.  Now  he  was  seized  with  sudden  weak- 
ness and  hunger.  If  he  were  the  Messiah,  why  not  turn 
these  stones  to  bread?  What  would  become  of  the  king- 
dom if  the  deliverer  should  perish?  Was  it  not  his  first 
duty  to  preserve  himself?  Here  too  he  conquered.  No, 
the  first  duty  was  not  to  preserve  himself;  it  was  to  do 
the  will  of  God.  That  in  the  end  is  what  man  must  live 
by,  not  bread  but  the  "word  that  proceedeth  out  of  the 
mouth  of  God."  It  was  the  same  answer  as  before,  obedi- 
ence and  trust,  and  this  too  Jesus  carried  through  his  life. 
He  knew  his  power  and  he  used  it,  but  always  for  others, 
never  for  himself.  They  taunted  him  when  he  was  on  the 
cross,  "He  saved  others;  himself  he  cannot  save"  (Matt  27. 
42).  But  that  was  what  he  had  been  doing  all  his  life — 
saving  others,  not  himself. 


THE  CALL  AND  THE  TEMPTATION  45 

Three  things  are  inade  clear  by  this  story.  ( i )  The  spir- 
itual insight  of  Jesus.  How  clearly  he  sees  the  principles 
at  stake.  What  all  other  men  are  saying  does  not  confuse 
him  or  lead  him  astray.  (2)  The  moral  victory  of  Jesus. 
Whatever  powers  may  oppose  him,  whatever  danger  or  ap- 
parent defeat  may  threaten,  he  trusts  only  in  God  and  will 
obey  him  alone.  (3)  The  human  life  of  Jesus.  He  is 
victorious  in  temptation,  but  he  is  not  untempted.  There  is 
real  fighting  here,  and  it  comes  not  once  but  again  and 
again. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Mark  i.  9-13;  Matt  3.  13  to  4.  11;  Luke  3.  21  to  4.  13. 

Compare  carefully  the  three  accounts  of  the  baptism  and  note 
the  differences,  observing  that  Mark  is  the  oldest.  Is  the  tendency 
to  literalize  figures  of  speech  modern  or  ancient? 

Are  there  any  moral  difficulties  in  the  way  of  literalizing  the  story 
of  the  temptation?  Would  it  have  been  a  real  temptation  if  a 
literal  Satan  had  stood  before  him,  or  had  carried  him  physically 
to  a  temple  pinnacle? 

Read  the  story  of  Gethsemane  in  Mark  14.  32-42.  Note  the  na- 
ture of  the  temptation  and  the  way  Jesus  met  it.  Is  there  any 
analogy  in  these  two  points  between  this  and  the  wilderness  temp- 
tation ? 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  BEGINNINGS 
J,^^   ,  It  is  not  easv  to  trace  the  outline  of  Jesus'  life  in  the 

Gospels  not        ^  '  "^ 

biographies  Gospels.  The  Gospels  are  not  biographies,  and  do  not 
claim  to  be.  The  fourth  Gospel  states  what  is  the  common 
purpose  of  all:  "These  are  written,  that  ye  may  believe 
that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God"  (John  20.  31). 
The  Gospels  are  sermons  rather  than  biographies.  In  them 
the  materials  are  collected  which  the  early  church  used  for 
its  preaching.  Their  interest  is  to  set  forth  Jesus,  that  men 
may  believe,  not  to  describe  the  development  of  his  life  or 
the  progress  of  his  work.  The  first  chapters,  it  is  true,  give 
us  the  story  of  the  beginnings,  and  at  the  close  there  is  the 
story  of  his  sufferings  and  death.  But  we  cannot  be  sure 
of  the  order  of  what  comes  in  between.  It  is  not  even 
known  how  long  the  period  of  Jesus'  ministry  was,  and 
scholars  have  estimated  it  at  from  one  to  three  years  or  more. 

The  stages  gy^-  -^hiig  ^e  cauuot  tracc  out  a  biography,  there  are 

of  the  life  .  ,  .. 

certain  questions  that  must  be  raised.  How  did  Jesus  begin 
his  work,  and  what  was  his  aim?  How  did  he  wan  his 
disciples,  and  how  did  he  make  his  enemies?  And  how,  in 
the  end,  did  his  death  come  about?  To  these  questions,  the 
Gospel  of  Mark,  the  oldest  of  the  four,  gives  some  reply. 
If  the  suggestions  of  Mark  be  followed,  five  stages  in  the 
life  and  work  of  Jesus  may  be  traced,  (i)  Jesus  begins 
his  ministry  in  Galilee,  teaching  and  ministering  to  men, 
drawing  great  multitudes  in  apparent  success,  and  gath- 
ering a  few  special  followers  about  him.  (2)  As  the  mean- 
ing of  his  teaching  becomes  clear  a  change  takes  place.  The 
people  desert  him  because  he  does  not  fulfill  their  hopes  of 
an  earthly  kingdom.  The  scribes  and  Pharisees  grow 
bitterly  hostile  because  he  attacks  their  teaching  and  threat- 

46 


TT-IE  BEGINNINGS 


47 


ens  their  leadership.  The  little  group  of  his  disciples,  how- 
ever, through  Peter,  confesses  its  faith  in  him  as  the  Messiah. 
(3)  More  and  more  Jesus  withdraws  from  the  crowds  and 
gives  himself  to  the  training  of  the  inner  circle  of  his  dis- 
ciples. (4)  Finally  he  turns  toward  Jerusalem,  realizing 
the  danger,  but  convinced  that  by  his  death  he  is  to  save 
men,  and  that  he  will  return  again  and  set  up  the  Kingdom. 
(5)  His  last  appeal  to  the  people  fails  after  a  brief  outburst 
of  enthusiasm,  and  his  life  closes  with  his  trial  and  cruci- 
fixion. We  shall  study  the  work  of  Jesus  according  to  this 
outline,  taking  up  his  teachings  separately. 

How  did  Jesus  begin  his  work?  According  to  the  syn- 
optic Gospels,  Jesus  began  his  work  quietly  and  simply  as 
a  teacher.  Why  Jesus  did  this  we  can  understand  from 
the  last  chapter.  The  temptation  story  shows  that  he  clearly 
recognized  the  gulf  that  lay  between  his  idea  of  the  king- 
dom and  that  of  the  people.  With  the  latter,  the  kingdom 
meant  an  earthly  realm.  The  Messiah  was  one  that  would 
come  with  splendor  and  deeds  of  power,  overthrowing  their 
foes  and  establishing  this  political  realm.  For  Jesus  the 
Kingdom  was  spiritual  and  ethical,  a  kingdom  of  right- 
eousness and  love.  The  great  obstacle  for  them  was  their 
enemies.  The  great  obstacle  for  Jesus  was  ignorance  and 
sin.  To  have  announced  himself  as  Messiah  would  have 
defeated  all  his  higher  ends.  There  was  only  one  thing  to 
do.  He  had  fought  out  the  question  in  the  wilderness.  He 
must  teach  this  people  the  true  meaning  of  the  Kingdom, 
and  he  must  preach  to  this  people  and  lead  them  to  peni- 
tence and  to  a  new  life  with  God. 

The  fourth  Gospel  gives  a  most  vivid  and  interesting 
narrative  of  the  beginnings  of  Jesus'  work  in  Judaea.  We 
read  here  how  he  meets  certain  Galilreans  among  the  fol- 
lowers of  John  the  Baptist :  Andrew  and  his  brother  Peter, 
Philip  and  probably  John,  with  Nathanael.  Such  a  meet- 
ing would  explain  how  Jesus  later  called  these  men  in 
Galilee  and  how  they  followed  him.    The  later  call  was  not 


Jesus  begins 
as  a  teacher 


Jesus  in 
Judaea 


48  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

a  chance  meeting  and  was  not  at  first  sight ;  the  men  them- 
selves were  men  whom  he  had  thus  had  opportunity  to  meet 
before.  There  are  other  reasons  for  thinking  that  Jesus 
began  his  work  in  Judaea.  Mark  suggests  this  when  he 
says  that  Jesus  came  into  Galilee  "after  John  was  delivered 
up"  (Mark  i.  14).  It  seems  implied  in  Jesus'  words  of 
lament  over  Jerusalem,  "How  often  would  I  have  gathered 
thy  children  together"  (Luke  13.  34).  If  Jesus'  ministry 
lasted  more  than  one  year,  it  is  probable  that  he  would  at 
least  have  attended  the  yearly  passover  feasts  at  Jerusalem. 
Jesus  begins        j^  jg  ^.^  Q^ijiee  that  we  must  turn,  however,  and  to  Mark's 

at  Capernaum  '       _  ' 

Gospel,  for  the  first  clear  and  definite  account  of  Jesus' 
public  work.  Whatever  he  may  have  done  in  Judaea,  it  is 
Galilee  that  he  chooses  for  the  real  field  of  his  labor.  The 
city  where  he  begins  is  not  Nazareth,  but  Capernaum.  To 
this  he  may  well  have  been  led  because  his  friends  Peter  and 
Andrew  lived  there.  But  there  was  a  stronger  reason.  Ca- 
pernaum was  a  populous  city  lying  on  the  northwest  shore 
of  Lake  Galilee,  being  the  chief  port  for  the  fishermen  of 
the  lake.  Round  about  it  lay  the  most  fruitful  and  populous 
regions  of  the  province.  By  it  swept  the  great  road  that 
led  from  Damascus  to  the  Mediterranean.  Jesus  was  here 
in  the  midst  of  a  busy  pulsing  life.  Here  he  could  bring 
his  message  to  the  people  and  from  this  center  he  could  go 
through  the  villages  of  Galilee.  It  is  Capernaum,  with  the 
nearby  cities  of  Chorazin  and  Bethsaida,  that  Jesus  declared 
had  seen  his  mighty  works  (Matt  11.  20-24). 
Jesus  as  Wg  have  sccu  why  Jesus  would  begin  his  work  by  teach- 

ing and  preaching,  and  this  is  the  way  in  which  the 
Gospels  represent  it.  "Jesus  came  into  Galilee,  preaching 
the  gospel  of  God"  (Mark  i.  14).  "He  went  round 
about  the  villages  teaching"  (Mark  6.  6).  "He  was 
preaching  in  the  synagogues  of  Galilee"  (Luke  4.  44). 
The  scribe,  or  teacher,  was  a  familiar  figure  with  the  Jews. 
Such  a  life  on  Jesus'  part  would  excite  no  wonder.  But 
the  people  very  soon  saw  with  wonder  the  difference  be- 


prophet 


THE  BEGINNINGS  49 

tween  Jesus  and  the  scribes.  The  teaching  of  the  scribes 
all  looked  to  the  past,  to  the  law  that  God  had  once  given 
and  to  the  traditions  that  had  been  built  up  around  it.  Jesus 
spoke  directly  out  of  his  own  heart.  "And  they  were  as- 
tonished at  his  teaching;  for  he  taught  them  as  having  au- 
thority" (Mark  i.  22).  And  so  they  called  him  a  prophet, 
a  John  or  an  Elijah  (Mark  6.  15  ;  8.  28).  They  rejoiced  to 
think  that  God  had  thus  come  to  them  again  (Luke  7.  16). 
Even  after  his  death  it  was  as  "a  prophet  mighty  in  deed 
and  word"  that  his  disciples  spoke  of  him  (Luke  24.  19). 
His  relation  to  the  prophets  was  evident  in  his  teaching. 
It  was  not  the  priestly  and  legal  side  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment that  appeared  in  him,  but  the  prophetic.  Their  dis- 
regard of  form  and  ritual,  their  appeal  to  conscience,  their 
emphasis  on  righteousness,  all  reappear  in  his  teaching. 

And  yet  Jesus  was  not  simply  a  prophet  even  in  his  J^^"^  ™o''« 
teaching.  The  prophets  had  the  special  word  which  was  prophet 
given  to  them  to  speak.  They  came  with  a  "Thus  saith 
the  Lord,"  and  spoke  only  as  commanded.  Jesus'  message 
is  not  simply  a  word  given  to  him.  It  is  a  spirit  and  a 
life  within  him.  Out  of  the  fullness  of  that  life  he  speaks. 
It  is  no  formal  message.  It  is  the  giving  of  a  life.  He 
gives  it  in  the  synagogue  or  b}'  the  wayside,  to  the  throng- 
ing multitudes,  to  the  little  group  of  his  friends,  or  to  some 
single  soul.  He  can  speak  with  the  passion  and  power  of 
the  prophet,  but  he  can  stop  to  comfort  a  poor  woman  or 
greet  a  child.  And  the  difference  is  even  more  plain  in  his 
life.  He  is  more  than  a  messenger ;  he  is  a  neighbor,  a  com- 
rade, a  friend.  He  is  not  the  stern  executor  of  fiery  judgment 
that  John  saw.  He  can  stop  to  caress  the  children  in  the 
marketplace.  He  has  time  for  a  wedding  feast,  or  to  meet 
Levi's  friends  at  a  dinner  party,  or  to  rest  at  the  fireside 
of  his  intimates.  He  drew  the  line  at  no  class.  They 
criticized  him  because  he  accepted  table  hospitality  even 
from  "sinners."  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  not  afraid  of 
the  homes  of  the  rich.     But  we  must  remember  one  other 


50 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  call  of 
the  first 
disciples 


Jesus  and  the 
synagogue 


In  the 

synagogue  at 
Nazareth 


thing  as  we  picture  this  ministry  that  was  so  different 
from  that  of  rabbi  or  priest  or  even  prophet:  while  Jesus 
Hved  this  common  Hfe,  he  never  suffered  it  to  be  common- 
place. He  touched  all  this  life  only  to  bless  it,  and  his 
greatest  blessing  was  to  light  it  up  everywhere  with  the 
divine  life  and  meaning. 

Mark  pictures  to  us  with  vivid  detail  the  first  days  at 
Capernaum.  We  can  understand  this  detailed  knowledge 
when  we  remember  the  probability  that  it  was  from  Peter 
himself  that  Mark  obtained  this  story.  Its  first  Incident  is 
the  call  of  the  two  pairs  of  brothers,  Simon  Peter  and  An- 
drew, James  and  John,  all  of  them  fishermen.  They  had 
been  among  those  that  had  answered  to  John's  call,  but  they 
had  seen  in  Jesus  the  One  greater  than  John.  Now  that 
he  was  ready  to  take  up  his  public  work,  they  were  ready 
to  follow  him. 

The  Sabbath  at  Capernaum  comes  next.  Luke  tells 
us  that  Jesus  was  accustomed  to  go  to  the  synagogue  on 
the  Sabbath  (4.  16).  The  custom  may  not  only  have  been 
for  the  sake  of  worship,  but  because  the  synagogue  worship 
afforded  him,  as  later  on  with  Paul,  an  opportunity  to  give 
his  message.  No  institution  is  connected  more  closely  with 
the  beginnings  of  Christianity  than  the  synagogue.  Its 
worship  was  simple  and  democratic.  It  laid  stress  upon 
teaching,  as  does  the  Protestant  Church  with  its  pulpit  and 
with  its  Sunday  school.  It  was  no  mere  place  of  ritual, 
like  the  temple.  At  a  stated  place  in  the  service  there  was 
opportunity  for  exhortation  or  for  explanation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures that  had  been  read.  Any  one  might  be  called  upon 
here,  but  especially  a  visiting  teacher  or  scribe.  Here 
Jesus  spoke  and  astounded  them  because  he  did  not  quote 
Rabbi  This  or  Rabbi  That,  but  "taught  them  as  having 
authority." 

What  Jesus'  message  was  Mark  does  not  record.  Luke, 
however,  reports  a  synagogue  address  which  Jesus  gave 
in  his  home  town  of  Nazareth  (Luke  4.  16-22).    This  must 


THE  BEGINNINGS  51 

have  occurred  later  in  Jesus'  ministry.  We  take  it  up 
here  because  it  gives  another  synagogue  scene  and  because 
in  it  Jesus  speaks  of  the  aims  of  his  ministry.  We  can 
easily  imagine  the  little  village  synagogue  crowded  with 
Jesus'  neighbors  and  boy-time  friends,  eager  to  see  and 
hear  the  young  man  whose  teachings  and  doings  had  made 
such  a  stir.  From  the  roll  of  the  prophet  Isaiah  which  is 
given  to  him  Jesus  chooses  his  lesson.  The  beautiful  pas- 
sage is  the  confession  of  his  purpose,  and  descriptive  of  the 
work  which  filled  his  days  at  this  time : 

The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon  me, 

Because  he  anointed  me  to  preach  good  tidings  to  the  poor : 

He  hath  sent  me  to  proclaim  release  to  the  captives, 

And  recovering  of  sight  to  the  blind, 

To  set  at  liberty  them  that  are  bruised. 

To  proclaim  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord. 

Jesus'  message  begins  like  that  of  John.  First  comes  The  good 
the  good  news,  the  word  which  we  translate  "gospel" :  The 
longed-for  kingdom  is  at  the  door,  the  acceptable  year  is 
at  hand,  the  rule  of  God  is  about  to  be  established.  So 
near  at  hand  did  he  feel  it  that  he  could  say,  a  little  later, 
"There  are  some  here  of  them  that  stand  by,  who  shall  in 
no  wise  taste  of  death  till  they  see  the  kingdom  of  God 
come  with  power"  (Mark  9.  i).  Men  were  to  repent,  as 
John  declared,  but  they  were  to  do  much  more ;  they  were 
to  live  like  children  of  their  Father  by  being  pure  of  heart 
and  kindly  and  merciful  in  deed.  This  teaching  we  mtist 
study  more  fully  later.  The  deeds  of  healing  which  Mark 
records  in  this  story  of  that  first  Capernaum  Sabbath  will 
occupy  the  next  chapter. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Alark  i.  14-28:  Luke  4.  14-22;  5.  i-ii;  John  i.  35-51. 

Locate  upon  the  map  Capernaum,  Chorazin,  and  Bethsaida. 
Using  the  scale  of  miles,  estimate  their  distance  apart.  Note  the 
relative  position  of  Nazareth  to  these  three  and  its  approximate 
distance. 


news 


52  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

Look  carefully  through  the  first  five  chapters  of  Mark  and  note 
(i)  the  number  of  passages  which  refer  to  Jesus  as  teaching,  and 
(2)  the  number  which  refer  to  the  crowds  of  people  that  came  to 
him.     Make  a  list  of  the  passages  in  both  cases. 

Make  a  list  of  the  different  places  and  conditions  in  which  Jesus 
taught  as   referred  to  in  these  five  chapters. 

Read  carefully  the  accounts  of  the  call  of  the  first  disciples  as 
given  by  Mark,  Luke,  and  John  in  the  references  above.  Are  they 
necessarily  exclusive  of  each  other? 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  MINISTRY  OF  HEALING 

We  have  seen  that,  like  John  the  Baptist,  Jesus  was  a 
preacher,  and  he  put  his  work  of  preaching  and  teaching 
first.  But  that  was  not  all  of  Jesus'  work,  and  a  study  of 
their  lives  shows  the  marked  contrast  between  the  two  men. 
Jesus  himself  notes  the  difference  in  quoting  the  perverse 
criticism  of  their  common  enemies :  "John  is  come  neither 
eating  nor  drinking,  and  ye  say.  He  hath  a  demon.  The  Son 
of  man  is  come  eating  and  drinking,  and  ye  say.  Behold,  a 
gluttonous  man  and  a  winebibber,  a  friend  of  publicans  and 
sinners !"  Back  of  this  caricature  lay  the  truth,  John  was 
an  ascetic  and  lived  apart.  He  was  "a  voice  crying  in  the 
wilderness."  Jesus  was  a  man  among  men.  He  had  open 
eyes  for  the  beauties  of  nature :  he  notes  sunset  and  storm- 
clouds  and  lightning  flash,  the  sprouting  wheat  and  ripening 
grain,  and  all  the  life  of  out-of-doors.  Above  all,  the 
world  of  human  life  appeals  to  him.  He  has  his  close 
friends.  He  craves  companions.  He  accepts  hospitality. 
He  is  found  even  at  the  table  of  the  rich;  indeed,  to  one 
rich  man's  home  he  invites  himself  (Luke  19.  5).  He  goes 
to  the  quiet  places  for  prayer,  but  he  comes  back  to  the 
crowded  ways  to  live.  He  chooses  busy  Capernaum,  not 
little  Nazareth,  populous  Decapolis  and  not  the  wilderness. 
We  find  him  by  the  lakeside  with  the  fishermen,  at  the 
customhouse,  in  the  market  place  or  the  synagogue;  and 
everywhere  he  is  talking  with  men. 

Two  reasons  lie  back  of  this  difference  between  Jesus 
and  John.  One  lies  in  the  spirit  of  Jesus,  his  broad  hu- 
manity, his  intense  sympathy.  The  Gospels  show  this  sym- 
pathy again  and  again:  when  the  sick  are  brought  to  him, 
when  he  sees  the  people  scattered  as  sheep  without  a  shep- 

53 


Jesus  in 
contrast  with 
John 


The  reasons 
for  the 
difference 


54 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Demon 
possession 


Three 

healings 


herd,  when  he  flames  in  anger  against  the  Pharisees  because 
these  leaders  are  only  leading  folks  astray,  "blind  leaders 
of  the  blind."  He  will  not  let  the  little  children  be  pushed 
aside.  He  will  not  send  the  multitudes  away  hungry.  He 
hears  the  cry  of  the  blind  man  by  the  roadside  despite  the 
crowds.  The  second  reason  lay  in  Jesus'  conception  of 
his  work.  John  was  the  herald.  Jesus  was  the  Aiessiah. 
The  kingdom  was  already  present  in  him,  if  only  in  its 
beginning.  Men's  sins  were  being  forgiven  and  their  sick- 
ness healed.  That  was  what  the  rule  of  God  meant,  and 
that  was  what  he  was  come  for,  "not  to  be  ministered  unto, 
but  to  minister."  And  that  was  why  he  pointed  the  dis- 
ciples whom  John  sent  to  these  works  (Alatt  ii.  2-6).  Thus 
both  Jesus'  spirit  of  sympathy  and  his  idea  of  his  work 
impelled  him  to  a  ministry  far  broader  than  that  of  John. 

The  ministry  of  service  may  be  considered  under  two 
heads.  There  is,  first,  the  ministry  of  healing,  in  which 
Jesus  dealt  with  demon  possession  and  other  forms  of  sick- 
ness ;  and  there  is  the  ministry  of  forgiveness  which  shows 
Jesus  in  his  relation  to  sinners. 

The  Old  Testament  has  httle  to  say  about  spirits,  evil 
or  good.  The  New  Testament  world  seems  to  be  filled 
with  them.  The  belief  in  them  came  from  without,  from 
Persia,  in  the  last  couple  of  centuries  before  Christ.  Men 
were  thought  to  be  in  constant  danger  of  having  evil  spirits 
enter  them.  Their  presence  was  the  explanation  of  special 
forms  of  disease  such  as  seemed  to  demand  some  unusual 
cause.  Among  these  were  particularly  mental  and  nervous 
disorders,  like  insanity  and  epilepsy,  as  well  as  diseases 
like  paralysis  and  lepros3\  There  seem  to  have  been  cases 
also  of  moral  degeneracy,  where  we  read  of  unclean  spirits. 

Mark's  Gospel  gives  us  three  typical  cases.  The  first 
occurs  in  the  Capernaum  synagogue  on  that  first  Sunday. 
This  may  have  been  a  man  of  evil  life,  whom  Jesus  aroused 
by  the  power  of  his  appeal.  The  case  served  to  stir  the 
people  and  spread  Jesus'  fame  at  the  very  beginning.     The 


THE  MINISTRY  OF  HEALING  55 

second  is  the  man  in  the  Gerasene  country  across  the  lake 
from  Capernaum,  a  case  of  violent  insanity,  the  poor  wretch 
living  as  an  outcast  among  the  tombs  (Mark  5.  1-20),  The 
third  is  a  case  of  epilepsy,  that  of  a  boy  whom  the  disciples 
had  first  tried  in  vain  to  heal. 

Such  cases  of  demoniac  healing  were  an  undoubted  part  Forjesus 
of  Jesus'  work.    We  cannot,  of  course,  be  sure  of  all  details,   ^^j  '^p  "^^ 
iVs    to   Jesus'    own    conception    we    cannot    tell.      So    far   overcome 
as    ordinary   knowledge    is    concerned,    we   find   him    else- 
where sharing  the  opinions  of  his  time.     In  any  case  his 
religious  insight  here  is  true.    The  evil  spirits  are  here  only 
to  be  overcome.     There  is  no  room  for  the  superstition  and 
fear  which  usually  goes  with  the  belief  in  demons,  only 
the  perfect  confidence  in  the  power  and  goodness  of  his 
Father. 

The  same  day  at  Capernaum  brings  to  Jesus  the  second  J^^"^  ^^^ 

til 6  sick 

class  of  the  needy  to  whom  he  ministered,  the  sick.  Return- 
ing home  after  the  synagogue  service,  he  heals  Peter's 
mother-in-law,  whom  he  finds  ill  with  a  fever.  This,  joined 
to  the  case  of  the  demoniac,  rouses  the  city.  No  sooner 
is  the  sun  set  and  the  Sabbath  over,  according  to  Jewish 
reckoning,  than  they  begin  bringing  the  sick  to  the  door  of 
Peter's  house  for  Jesus  to  heal.  Mark  does  not  say  that 
he  healed  them  all,  but  that  "he  healed  many  that  were  sick 
with  divers  diseases  and  cast  out  many  demons." 

It  was  enough  to  still  further  move  the  city.  Jesus  had  Jesus  will 
no  need  to  fear  a  lack  of  following.  A  great  ministry  a  mere  healer 
seemed  to  be  opening  to  him  at  Capernaum.  But  Jesus 
judged  the  situation  differently.  Here  were  the  elements  of 
danger  that  he  had  fought  against  in  his  temptation.  It 
was  not  a  spiritual  following  won  by  his  message.  It  was 
a  popular  and  outward  success  won  by  these  signs  of  power. 
And  Jesus  puts  it  aside.  He  will  not  become  a  worker  of 
signs.  His  great  work  is  not  here.  It  is  to  bring  to  men's 
minds  a  vision  of  God,  to  their  hearts  a  new  spirit  in  prepara- 
tion for  the  coming  Kingdom.    The  crowds  that  come  early 


a  fact 


56  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

in  the  morning  do  not  find  him.  He  has  been  meeting  this 
new  crisis,  as  he  met  the  first,  in  a  desert  place  in  prayer. 
His  decision  is  ready  when  the  disciples  find  him:  "Let  us 
go  elsewhere  into  the  next  towns,  that  I  may  preach  there 
also;  for  to  this  end  came  I  forth"  (Mark  i.  38).  He  does 
not  cease  his  ministry  of  healing.  He  is  moved  with  com- 
passion when  the  leper  comes.  But  he  charges  him  sternly 
to  tell  no  man  about  it  (Mark  i.  40-45). 
The  healings  These  stories  of  healing  have  been  the  cause  of  a  great 
deal  of  discussion.  Scholars  of  all  kinds  to-day  are  gener- 
ally inclined  to  admit  them.  They  are  so  deeply  embedded 
in  the  gospel  narratives  that  they  could  hardly  be  taken  out 
without  giving  up  the  entire  gospel  story.  How  they  were 
wrought  it  is  neither  necessary  nor  possible  for  us  to 
determine.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  Jesus  performed 
these  cures  out  of  sympathy  for  men,  and  not  to  atract  men 
or  win  their  faith.  He  did  not  want  a  following  that  was 
due  to  signs  and  wonders.  He  wanted  a  moral  and  spiritual 
faith  and  insight.  Such  a  faith  is  still  of  most  importance 
with  his  followers. 

DIRECTIONS   FOR   READING   AND    STUDY 

Read  and  compare  the  three  stories  of  the  healings  of  demoniacs 
found  in  Mark  i.  23-27;   5.   1-20;  9.   14-29. 

Does  Jesus'  word  of  heaHng  seem  to  have  been  conditioned  by 
what  he  found  in  others?  Illustrate  answer  from  following  pas- 
sages: Luke  7.  i-io;  Mark  5.  21-43;  10.  46-52;  Matt  15.  21-28. 

Note  Jesus'  motive  in  this  ministry  as  given  Matt  9.  35-38. 

Make  a  list  of  the  passages  in  the  first  eight  chapters  of  Mark 
which  refer  to  the  crowds  about  Jesus,  noting  the  indications  as 
to  the  reasons  for  his  popularity. 

What  was  Jesus'  attitude  as  to  the  demand  for  miracles,  and 
his  estimate  of  their  value  in  his  work?  Read  Matt  12.  38-42  and 
note  Mark  5.  43;  7.  36;  8.  26. 


CHAPTER    VIII 
THE  MINISTRY  OF  FORGIVENESS 

There  was  another  class  of  people  with  whom  Jesus  came  jesus  and 
in  contact  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  Capernaum  ministry.   **  sinners 
They  are  referred  to  as  the  sinners.     Nothing  in  Jesus' 
ministry  caused  more  comment  and  more  criticism  than  his 
relations  with  these  people,  and  nothing  is  more  character- 
istic of  his  spirit. 

The  word  "sinners"  in  these  references  is  not  used  in  The  Pharisaic 
exactly  our  sense.  We  must  not  be  misled  by  the  fact  that  reUgion 
harlots  and  publicans  are  sometimes  specially  mentioned  in  and  of  sin 
this  connection.  By  sinners  are  not  always  meant  the 
morally  reprobate.  The  idea  of  sin  depends  upon  the  idea 
of  religion.  With  the  Jewish  leaders  at  this  time,  religion 
meant  the  keeping  of  a  great  sum  of  rules  which  touched 
every  part  of  a  Jew's  life.  These  were  supposed  to  be  the 
laws  of  Moses,  all  taken  from  the  Old  Testament.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  consisted  for  the  most  part  of  the 
"traditions  of  the  elders,"  the  endless  rules  on  all  subjects 
that  had  been  deduced  from  these  laws  and  built  up  around 
them.  In  large  part  they  centered  about  the  idea  of  cere- 
monial purity.  Everything  was  divided  into  clean  and 
unclean:  food,  vessels,  people,  acts,  and  objects.  Minute 
rules  governed  all  these  points  as  well  as  the  endless  routine 
of  sacrifices,  gifts,  washings,  bathings,  prayers,  penances, 
and  the  like. 

To  live  this  life  according  to  the  highest  standards  of  ^^** 
that  time  required  knowledge  and  leisure  and  money.    The  required 
scribes  were  the  experts  in  this  field,  and  so  are  sometimes 
called  lawyers.     It  took  leisure  because  it  required  time  to 
fulfill  such  a  round  of  duties.     It  took  money  because  it 
interfered  with  ordinary  business.    That  was  especially  true 

57 


58 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Publicans 


Jesus' 
attitude 


Jesus  for- 
gives the 
paralytic 


in  Galilee,  where  there  were  so  many  non-Jews,  to  mingle 
with  whom  meant  impurity.  The  Pharisees  were  the  strict 
keepers  of  the  law.  As  such  they  were  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  by  the  common  people.  This  esteem  they  returned 
with  contempt  (John  7.  49).  The  poor  Jew  in  our  large 
cities  to-day  is  handicapped  in  just  the  same  way  if  he  is 
strictly  orthodox.  Many  of  these  work  only  five  days  in 
the  week.  They  will  not  work  on  Saturday  and  cannot 
work  on  Sunday,  and  sometimes  they  are  driven  to  the 
pedlar's  pushcart  because  men  will  not  hire  them  in  other 
occupations  for  only  five  days. 

Of  course  the  sinners  included  also  the  immoral.  Among 
these  the  tax  collectors  especially  stood  forth.  The  tax- 
gatherer  is  not  popular  even  to-day.  He  was  doubly 
hateful  to  the  Jews.  In  part  the  Roman  system  of 
farming  out  taxes  was  responsible.  The  contractor  for  a 
given  province  paid  the  government  a  fixed  svmi  and 
squeezed  this  sum,  and  as  much  more  as  he  could  get,  from 
the  people.  His  ol^cers,  or  agents,  were  the  publicans 
whom  we  meet  in  the  Gospels.  Some  occupied  higher 
positions,  like  Zacchseus,  and  were  correspondingly  rich. 
Some  were  of  the  rank  and  file,  as,  apparently,  Matthew. 
Aside  from  their  exactions,  the  Jews  hated  these  because 
they  were  renegades,  men  who  took  sides  for  hire  with  the 
hated  Roman  master. 

For  all  these  people  the  heart  of  Jesus  stirred  with  sym- 
pathy. They  were  as  sheep  not  having  a  shepherd.  He 
felt  a  special  mission  just  to  these  classes,  and  he  asserts  it 
again  and  again.  *T  came  not  to  call  the  righteous,  but 
sinners."  "The  Son  of  man  is  come  to  seek  and  to  save 
that  which  was  lost."  He  felt  himself  sent  to  save  "the  lost 
sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel,"  "to  preach  good  tidings  to  the 
poor." 

J\Iark  tells  us  in  his  second  chapter  of  the  beginning  of 
this  ministry.  The  crowds  who  followed  Jesus  because  of 
the   report   of  his   healings   had   driven   him   out   into   the 


THE  MINISTRY  OF  FORGIVENESS 


59 


Jesus  and  the 

Capernaum 

publicans 


"desert  places,"  that  is,  the  untilled  country.  Now  he 
comes  back  quietly  to  Peter's  home  in  Capernaum,  ap- 
parently for  rest.  But  the  people  discover  him  and  fill  the 
house  and  the  street.  A  poor  paralytic,  brought  by  his 
friends,  can  get  to  Jesus  only  by  being  let  down  through 
the  roof.  Jesus'  first  word  to  him,  however,  is  not  one  of 
healing  but  of  forgiveness.  That  seemed  to  Jesus  the  deeper 
need.  The  word  stirred  the  ire  of  his  enemies.  What  right 
had  he  to  forgive  sins? 

A  later  event  angered  them  still  more.  Situated  on  a 
great  highway  near  the  border  of  Herod's  territory,  Caper- 
naum was  an  important  place  for  the  collection  of  customs, 
and  contained  a  good  many  publicans.  One  of  these,  named 
Levi,  had  evidently  heard  Jesus'  teaching  and  in  turn  had 
been  noted  by  Jesus.  Passing  by  the  customhouse,  Jesus 
calls  him  and  invites  him  to  follow,  apparently  to  become 
one  of  the  little  circle  of  his  regular  companions.  Not  only 
did  Levi,  or  Alatthew,  as  he  is  also  called,  follow  him  at 
once,  but  he  made  a  supper  for  Jesus,  to  which  he  invited 
his  friends.  All  of  them,  of  course,  were  "sinners,"  people 
who  did  not  even  make  a  pretense  of  keeping  the  cere- 
monial law ;  many  of  them  were  hated  publicans  like 
Matthew  himself.  The  strict  Jew  would  not  have  spoken 
to  such  men.  To  sit  down  at  table  with  them  was  not 
only  to  scorn  all  the  conventions  of  society,  but  to  flout 
the  laws  which  were  the  very  essence  of  rehgion  for  these 
Pharisees.    But  Jesus  saw  in  this  his  opportunity. 

Luke  records  a  similar  incident,  where  Jesus  sought  out 
one  of  these  men.  It  is  the  story  of  Zacch^eus,  a  "chief 
publican"  and  a  rich  man.  The  time  is  the  latter  part  of 
Jesus'  ministry,  the  occasion  is  his  passage  through  Jericho, 
and  Jesus  does  not  simply  accept  an  invitation,  but  selects 
the  house  of  this  despised  publican  for  his  stay  (Luke  19. 
i-io). 

The  Gospels  show  us  that  a  large  part  of  Jesus'  ministry  The  ministry 
was  connected  with  these  people.     Luke  especially  brings   *°^"^®" 


A  chief 
publican 


6o  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

out  this  side  of  Jesus'  work.  It  was  not  simply  that  Jesus 
saw  their  need  and  gave  himself  to  them ;  these  people  in  a 
special  manner  turned  to  him.  He  found  with  them  the 
response  which  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  refused,  John 
had  had  the  same  experience  (Luke  7.  29,  30).  The  religion 
of  formalism  had  left  these  people  unmoved,  or  else  they 
were  of  the  poor  who  could  not  keep  these  laws.  They 
had  accepted  the  contempt  of  the  Pharisees  as  a  right  ver- 
dict, and  there  was  no  hope  in  their  hearts.  Jesus'  message 
of  God  and  righteousness  and  repentance  pricked  their 
conscience.  At  the  same  time  he  stirred  them  with  hope. 
They  were  to  him  not  "people  of  the  earth,"  but  brothers. 
He  made  them  feel  that  God  cared  for  each  one  of  them. 
He  taught  them  to  look  up  and  say,  "Father." 
The  response  The  response  of  these  people  to  his  ministry  stirred  the 
heart  of  Jesus  deeply.  Luke  brings  this  out  in  an  incident 
he  relates  (7.  36-50).  Jesus  had  been  invited  to  the  home 
of  a  Pharisee,  when  a  woman  of  the  city,  evidently  a 
notorious  character,  came  in  and  stood  behind  the  couch 
where  he  was  reclining  at  table.  She  was  one  whom  Jesus' 
word  of  forgiveness  had  reached  and  to  whom  it  had  brought 
a  new  life.  Moved  with  gratitude,  she  had  bought  a  flask 
of  ointment,  and  now,  weeping  and  wiping  his  feet  with  her 
hair,  she  poured  the  ointment  upon  them.  His  host,  Simon 
by  name,  paid  no  attention  to  this  act  of  devotion  which 
supplied  his  own  omission  of  courtesy,  in  that  he  had  not 
washed  the  feet  of  his  guest.  Simon  saw  only  that  this 
was  a  sinner  and  that  Jesus  permitted  her  defiling  touch. 
He  could  not  believe  that  Jesus  knew  what  she  was.  Jesus' 
answer  was  the  story  of  the  lender  and  the  two  debtors. 
Like  the  debtor  to  whom  the  heavy  debt  had  been  remitted, 
so  these  people  showed  a  depth  of  gratitude  which  he  had 
not  found  with  people  of  higher  standing.  He  found  even 
more  than  this :  a  spirit  of  humility  and  openness  and  desire 
which  was  so  lacking  with  the  Pharisees  (Luke  18.  9-14). 
He  did  not  minimize  their  past  disobedience,  yet  in  the  end 


THE  MINISTRY  OF  FORGIVENESS  6i 

it  was  they  who  went  into  the  kingdom  of  God  and  not  the 
piously  protesting  Pharisees  (Alatt  21.  28-32).  The  parable 
of  the  king's  wedding  feast  sets  forth  Jesus'  own  experience : 
the  invitation  is  refused  by  the  people  of  standing  to  whom 
it  goes,  and  it  is  the  poor  and  maimed  and  blind  and  lame 
that  at  last  come  in  (Luke  14.  15-24;  Matt  22.  i-io). 

This  entire  ministry  of  Jesus,  in  its  teaching  and  healing  jesus  as  the 
and  forgiving,  is  the  beginning  and  source  of  that  marvelous  i^g^|j.^y^jj 
development  of  education  and  philanthropy  and  missions  of  service 
which  has  marked  the  history  of  Christianity.  The  Jews 
laid  great  stress  upon  alms,  but  with  them  it  was  just  one 
more  precept  to  be  kept.  Their  interest  was  in  keeping  the 
law ;  Jesus'  center  of  interest  was  not  in  the  law  but  in  his 
brother.  Nietzsche  has  criticized  Christianity  from  this 
point  of  view,  calling  it  the  religion  of  the  submerged,  the 
morality  of  the  weak.  He  felt  that  there  was  a  certain 
superiority  or  contempt  toward  the  weak  in  all  this  pity. 
That  was  a  misconception.  The  ethics  of  Jesus  was  that 
of  the  strong,  only  not  of  the  strong  living  for  themselves 
but  for  others.  In  his  service  was  no  spirit  of  condescension 
or  scorn.  Like  our  modern  social  service,  which  he  has 
inspired,  it  was  democratic ;  back  of  it  lay  the  reverence 
for  men  as  his  brothers,  as  sons  of  the  Father. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING    AND    STUDY 

Mark  2.  1-17;  Luke  18.  9-14;  Matt  21.  28-32;  Luke  14.  15-24: 
Matt  22.  i-io. 

Read  Luke  7.  36-50  and  compare  with  the  story  told  in  Mark  14.  3-9 
and  Matt  26.  6-13.  Give  reasons  for  or  against  the  opinion  that 
these   refer  to   the   same  event. 

As  against  the  identification,  note  the  characteristic  words  of 
Jesus  in  both  instances ;  state  the  difference  in  their  point  and 
meaning. 

Carefully  look  through  chapters  4  to  8  of  Luke,  making  a  list 
of  the  deeds  of  heaHng  and  forgiving.  Do  they  warrant  the 
assertion  that  the  third  Gospel  shows  a  special  interest  in  the  poor 
and   suffering  and   outcasts? 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  MASTER  TEACHER 


The  place 
of  teaching 


The  faith  of 
a  teacher 


It  is  as  a  teacher  first  of  all  that  Jesus  appears  in  his 
ministry.  He  began  his  work  in  this  manner,  and  neither 
success  nor  defeat  turned  him  aside  from  this  course.  When 
the  crowds  left  him  he  devoted  himself  to  his  disciples,  but 
his  work  was  still  that  of  teaching.  It  is  as  a  teacher  in 
the  temple  that  he  spends  his  last  days  at  Jerusalem,  making 
a  final  appeal  to  the  people.  His  last  night  is  given  to  his 
disciples  in  instruction. 

The  parable  of  the  sower  sets  forth  Jesus'  faith  as  a 
teacher,  which  he  passes  on  to  the  disciples  for  their  en- 
couragement (Mark  4.  1-9),  He  was  like  one  with  good 
seed,  scattering  it  wherever  he  went.  He  saw  the  hard 
hearts  upon  which  it  fell  in  vain,  and  the  shallow  hearts  of 
those  who  responded  with  quick  enthusiasm  only  to  turn 
as  quickly  away.  None  of  these  things  moved  him.  He 
knew  that  there  was  life  in  the  seed,  in  his  message,  and 
that  it  was  his  work  to  sow ;  and  he  saw  the  future  harvest 
of  thirty  and  sixty  and  a  hundredfold,  Jesus  wrote  no 
book.  He  established  no  church,  and  we  have  no  record  that 
he  gave  orders  for  its  establishment.  He  was  a  sower.  He 
scattered  his  living  words  constantly,  prodigally.  He  gave 
them  forth  to  all  men,  on  all  occasions,  to  eager  throngs  in 
Galilee,  to  hostile  crowds  at  Jerusalem,  to  his  little  company 
of  followers,  to  children  in  the  market  place,  to  folks  met 
casually  by  the  wayside.  Only  a  few  comparatively  have 
come  down  to  us,  but  they  have  justified  his  faith.  These 
words,  flung  out  upon  the  air  like  scattered  seed,  have  Hved 
on  in  the  hearts  of  men  and  the  lives  of  nations  to  comfort, 
to  guide,  to  cast  down,  to  lift  up,  to  transform.    And  never 

62 


independence 


THE  MASTER  TEACHER  63 

before  have  they  l)ccn  so  closely  studied,  so  widely  spread, 
or  so  mighty  in  their  influence  as  to-day. 

The  first  mark  of  Jesus'  teaching  is  its  freedom  and  Authority  and 
authority.  It  is  truth  welling  up  directly  from  life.  That 
is  seen  not  merely  in  Jesus'  attitude  toward  tradition,  but 
toward  the  Old  Testament  as  well.  These  Scriptures  were 
indeed  part  of  his  inner  life.  In  his  moments  of  deepest  need, 
in  the  wilderness  temptation  and  on  the  cross,  their  words 
come  to  his  lips.  He  quoted  them  too  as  authority  against 
his  foes.  And  yet  back  of  this  we  find  an  attitude  of  inde- 
pendence and  sometimes  of  criticism.  There  are  several 
ways  in  which  this  attitude  appears :  ( i )  Jesus  was  not 
simply  dependent  upon  the  Old  Testament.  He  proclaimed 
the  God  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob;  but  this  was  a 
living  God,  and  Jesus  saw  him  in  the  world  and  knew  him 
in  his  own  life,  and  therefore  was  not  limited  to  the  record 
of  the  past.  (2)  Jesus  did  not  take  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment indifferently;  he  discriminated  and  chose.  He  pre- 
ferred the  prophetic  writings,  especially  the  second  part 
of  Isaiah,  Deuteronomy,  and  the  Psalms.  There  were  large 
portions  which  he  left  wholly  to  one  side.  (3)  He  set 
scripture  against  scripture.  He  went  back  of  the  Alosaic 
law  of  divorce  (Deut  24.  i)  to  assert  a  higher  law  that  was 
at  the  beginning  (Mark  10,  2-12).  (4)  He  definitely  set 
aside,  upon  his  own  authority,  certain  Old  Testament  pre- 
cepts or  laws.  "Ye  have  heard  that  it  was  said.  An  eye  for 
an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth ;  but  I  say  unto  you,  Resist 
not  him  that  is  evil"  (Matt  5.  38,  39).  In  his  own  practice 
he  disregarded  ceremonial  laws,  and  not  merely  those  of 
the  rabbis  but  of  the  Old  Testament  also.  When  called  to 
account  he  simply  declared,  that  it  was  not  what  went  into 
a  man's  body  but  what  came  out  of  his  heart  that  made  him 
unclean  (Mark  7.  1-23).  By  this  word  he  calmly  set  aside 
entire  sections  of  the  law  which  the  people  regarded  as 
holy  and  unchangeable.  And  the  evangelist  points  out  this 
conclusion  (Mark  7.  19).     (5)  Finally,  he  recognized  that 


64 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


How  Jesus 
fuimied 


The  teaching 
occasional 
and  vital 


Teaching  by 
pictures 


a  new  day  had  come  with  him.  He  revered  the  old,  but  a 
better  was  now  at  hand;  "one  greater  than  the  temple  is 
here"  (Matt  12.  6).  The  new  wine  had  come;  why  should 
it  be  put  in  the  old  wine-skins  that  could  no  longer  hold  it  ? 
If  the  old  forms  interfere  with  the  new  spirit,  let  the  old 
forms  drop  off  (Mark  2.  18-22).  That,  indeed,  was  what 
Jesus  did.  He  did  not  argue  against  the  old.  He  simply 
let  it  slough  off. 

One  passage  in  Matthew  seems  to  contradict  this  inter- 
pretation (5.  17-20).  There  Jesus  seems  to  assert  that 
every  least  letter  of  the  law  must  stand  forever.  Against 
Jesus'  clear  and  consistent  teaching  and  conduct  this  cannot 
stand.  Verses  18  and  19  may  have  been  inserted,  as  some 
think.  There  is  a  more  probable  interpretation:  that  Jesus 
had  been  criticized  as  one  who  was  destroying  all  law  and 
overturning  all  authority,  that  he  responded  by  saying: 
"You  are  the  destroyers  of  the  law,  not  I.  I  am  fulfilling 
it  by  standing  for  its  real  spirit.  There  is  not  one  truth 
that  I  am  overturning.  But  unless  your  righteousness 
exceeds  that  of  the  letter,  you  shall  never  enter  the 
Kingdom." 

Jesus'  method  of  teaching  was  not  systematic  but  occa- 
sional. He  was  not  a  college  professor  lecturing  upon  his 
subject,  taking  up  one  doctrine  after  another.  He  walked 
through  the  world  of  men  and  brought  the  truth  to  men 
as  he  saw  their  need.  He  saw  men  anxious  and  troubled, 
and  showed  them  the  birds  and  the  flowers  for  which  God 
was  caring  (Matt  6.  25-34),  but  he  never  sat  down  to  give 
his  disciples  a  lecture  upon  the  divine  immanence  or  provi- 
dence. Two  of  his  disciples  came  with  their  petty  ambitions  ; 
he  made  it  the  occasion  for  his  great  lesson  on  the  meaning 
of  life  as  a  chance  to  give,  not  to  get  (Matt  20.  20-28). 
Jesus'  teaching  was  vital,  practical.  He  was  interested  in 
life,  not  in  ideas   (Luke  13.  1-5). 

The  materials  for  his  teaching  Jesus  took  from  the  life 
of  the  people  to  whom  he  spoke.     He  was  popular  in  the 


THE  MASTER  TEACHER  65 

best  sense  of  the  word.  In  pedagogical  wisdom  he  was  a 
teacher  of  the  highest  order.  He  spoke  the  language  that 
people  knew.  He  took  their  common  world  and  made  it 
teach  his  highest  lessons.  All  the  life  of  that  day  looks 
out  upon  us  from  his  pages.  We  see  the  world  of  nature : 
the  glowing  sunset  that  promises  fair  weather,  the  red  of 
the  morning  that  suggests  the  storm,  the  lightning  that 
flashes  from  end  to  end  of  heaven,  the  bright  flowers  and 
the  quickly  fading  grass,  the  slow-growing  grain,  the  field 
where  wheat  and  tares  are  mixed  together,  the  fig  tree 
showing  its  first  tender  green,  the  vineyard  ready  for  the 
gathering,  and  the  bending  heads  of  the  rich  harvest  that 
promises  its  hundredfold.  We  see  the  living  creatures :  the 
birds  that  have  their  nests,  the  foxes  with  their  holes,  the 
carrion  birds  gathering  where  the  carcass  is,  the  hungry 
flock  settling  down  on  the  new-sown  field,  the  little  dead 
sparrow  whom  God  notices,  though  men  do  not.  We  see 
men  busy  at  their  daily  tasks :  the  farmer,  the  merchant, 
the  landowner,  the  judge.  How  many  different  characters 
he  shows  us ! — the  poor  widow  and  the  unjust  judge,  the 
faithful  shepherd,  the  poor  beggar,  the  successful  farmer 
whom  Jesus  brands  as  fool.  No  pictures  are  more  sug- 
gestive than  those  that  show  us  the  home  and  the  children : 
the  mother  kneading  her  dough,  the  windowless  house  where 
you  must  search  long  for  your  lost  coin,  the  closed  house 
where  the  father  and  children  are  in  bed,  the  picture  of  the 
children  about  the  table  with  the  dogs  underneath,  the 
evening  hour  with  the  lamp  upon  the  stand  giving  light  to 
all  in  the  house.  And  the  children !  We  see  them  busily 
playing  their  games  of  funeral  or  wedding  as  they  might 
to-day,  or  coming  hungry  to  their  father,  sure  that  they 
will  get  bread  and  not  a  stone,  or  placed  once  more  by 
Jesus  in  the  midst  to  preach  the  great  lesson  of  the  open, 
trustful  heart.  There  are  shadows  too:  the  laborers  that 
wait  in  the  market  place  and  have  no  one  to  hire  them, 
that  toil  all  day  and  then  must  serve  their  master  at  nisfht 


66 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Effectiveness 
and  art 


The  forms  of 
the  picture 
teaching 


Likenesses 


before  they  can  eat,  or  that  feel  the  cruel  scourge  for  some 
misdeed,  the  beggar  lying  at  the  gate  while  the  feast  goes 
on  within,  the  debtor  on  his  way  to  prison,  the  criminal 
bearing  his  own  cross  to  the  place  of  execution. 

Such  teaching  was  of  the  highest  effectiveness.  It  comes 
to  us,  indeed,  from  another  world  and  a  long-past  age,  yet 
so  simple  is  its  form  and  so  human  the  relations  it  uses  that 
every  age  since  then  has  heard  it  as  its  own.  There  are 
vivid  pictures,  pregnant  phrases,  that  have  long  since  passed 
into  common  speech :  salt  of  the  earth,  whited  sepulchers, 
wolves  in  sheep's  clothing,  grapes  from  thorns,  the  house 
divided  against  itself.  Jesus  is  an  artist.  There  is  a  beauty 
in  these  words  that  neither  the  years  of  verbal  tradition 
nor  the  loss  through  translation  has  destroyed.  In  beauty 
of  phrase,  in  economy  of  line,  in  their  picture  language, 
and,  above  all,  in  the  perfection  of  their  thought,  we  have 
here  poetry  and  painting  at  its  highest.  There  is  a  finality 
of  form  which  marks  the  highest  art.  And  yet  we  hardly 
dare  to  use  that  word,  which  suggests  effort  and  thought 
of  effect,  for  everything  here  is  free,  natural,  spontaneous. 

We  have  already  seen  how  much  of  Jesus'  teaching  is 
figurative,  and  how  he  takes  it  from  the  life  all  about  him. 
He  took  this  common  world  which  men  knew  and  made  them 
see  the  spiritual  truths  about  which  they  were  so  blind. 
We  may  distinguish  three  forms  in  this  picture  teaching  of 
Jesus:  likenesses,  examples,  and  parables. 

First  come  the  likenesses.  Often  the  comparison  is 
implied,  not  expressed.  "Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth."  "Ye 
are  the  light  of  the  world."  "A  city  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be 
hid."  "No  man  putteth  new  wine  into  old  wine-skins." 
"Do  men  gather  grapes  of  thorns?"  Sometimes  the  com- 
parison is  stated,  as  in  the  picture  of  the  perverse  children. 
He  found  people  like  some  children  at  play.  Their  comrades 
propose  that  they  play  wedding,  and  begin  to  pipe,  but  they 
do  not  want  to  play  wedding  and  so  will  not  dance  to  the 
music.     And  when  their  friends  offer  to  play  funeral  and 


THE  MASTER  TEACHER 


^7 


Parables 


Start  to  wailing,  instead  of  beating  their  breasts  and  playing 
mourner  they  refuse  this  game  also.  John  came  as  an 
ascetic ;  they  would  not  hear  him  but  said,  "He  has  a  demon." 
Jesus  came  and  joined  in  all  the  life  of  men ;  him  too  they 
would  not  hear,  he  was  a  glutton  and  winebibber  (Matt 
II.  16-19). 

The  examples  form  another  class.  These  are  usually  Examples 
classed  with  the  parables.  They  are  really  impressive  illus- 
trations setting  forth  some  Christian  principle.  There  are 
four  of  these:  The  good  Samaritan  (Luke  10.  29-37)  5  the 
Pharisee  and  the  publican  (Luke  18.  9-14)  ;  the  rich  fool 
(Luke  12.  16-21)  ;  and  Dives  and  Lazarus  (Luke  16.  19-31). 

The  parables  form  the  third  class.  The  parable  is  an 
invented  tale  like  a  fable,  except  that  the  parable  is  some- 
thing that  might  naturally  happen.  There  are  no  talking 
animals  in  a  parable  as  in  the  fables  of  ^T^sop.  The  purpose 
of  the  parable  is  to  persuade  or  explain.  It  may  be  defined 
as  an  argument  or  explanation  from  analogy,  in  which  a 
natural  happening  in  a  lower  sphere  is  made  to  show  the 
truth  in  a  higher  sphere.  The  parable  of  the  prodigal  son 
is  such  an  argument.  Jesus  tells  the  story  of  a  father  who 
forgives  the  returning  son  that  has  done  wrong,  instead  of 
casting  him  out.  IMen  could  understand  and  appreciate  this 
incident.  Jesus  transfers  it  to  a  higher  realm  and  says: 
That  is  the  way  with  our  Father  in  heaven. 

Few  parts  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus  have  been  more  mis- 
used than  the  parables.  The  common  mistake  has  been  to 
treat  them  as  if  they  were  allegories.  In  Spenser's  Faerie 
Qucene  and  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  we  have  good 
examples  of  the  allegory.  An  allegory  is  an  extended  simile. 
Every  figure  or  character  in  the  allegory  represents  some 
spiritual  fact  or  truth.  It  is  like  two  lines  running  parallel 
with  point  corresponding  to  point.  The  parable  is  like  two 
curves  which  touch  at  only  one  point ;  it  is  an  argument 
usually  meant  to  prove  or  illustrate  just  one  thing.  The 
parable   of   the   prodigal    son   proves   one   truth — God    is 


The  mistake 
of  allegorizing 


of  legalizing 


68  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

merciful  as  the  best  fathers  of  earth  are.  It  is  a  mistake, 
then,  to  use  it  as  is  commonly  done  to  prove  a  hundred 
other  points,  to  find  some  hidden  spiritual  meaning  in  the 
swine  and  the  husks  and  the  strangers,  the  robe,  the  ring, 
the  shoes,  and  all  the  rest. 
The  mistake  The  Other  mistake  that  has  been  made  in  interpreting 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  has  been  the  attempt  to  make  of  it  a 
set  of  rules  or  laws.  Jesus  had  no  thought  of  bringing  laws 
to  men.  His  whole  teaching  is  a  protest  against  a  religion 
of  laws.  He  was  interested  in  the  life  of  men,  in  leading 
men  into  the  rich  life  with  God  which  he  himself  possessed. 
To  this  end  his  teachings  are  designed  to  stir  repentance, 
to  quicken  desire,  to  bring  a  higher  vision,  to  lead  men  to 
decision  for  God  and  to  trust  in  him.  Like  a  good  physician, 
he  does  not  prescribe  the  same  for  every  man.  He  calls 
Levi  to  follow  him,  but  the  Gadarene  demoniac  who  wanted 
to  follow  him  he  sends  to  his  home.  Zacchseus  and  Lazarus 
may  keep  their  home  and  their  wealth ;  the  rich  young 
ruler  he  bids  sell  all  and  follow  him. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING    AND    STUDY 

Mark  2.  18-22;  4.   1-9;  7.   1-23;   10.  2-12;  Matt  5.  17-48. 

Using  the  marginal  references  of  the  Standard  Revision,  make 
a  list  of  Old  Testament  quotations  and  allusions  found  in  the 
account  of  the  temptation  and  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

In  the  first  five  instances  of  likenesses  given  in  this  chapter, 
write  out  the  comparison  in  full. 

What  is  the  religious  principle  illustrated  in  the  four  examples 
given  above. 

Give  the  argument  or  analogy  of  the  parables  found  in  the 
following  passages:  Matt  7.  24-27;  13.  44;  25.  14-30. 


CHAPTER    X 


THE    KINGDOM    OF    GOD 

"The  kingdom  of  God"  is  a  phrase  that  meets  us  through- 
out the  Gospels.  As  we  have  seen,  John  began  with  this 
message  and  Jesus  made  it  his  own.  Both  declared  that  the 
expected  Kingdom  was  near  at  hand.  The  same  thought 
was  in  the  minds  of  all  the  people.  They  were  ready  to 
ask  of  John  as  of  Jesus,  *Ts  he  the  Messiah  who  will  bring 
in  the  Kingdom?"  Jesus'  deeds  of  healing  stirred  their 
expectation:  "Perhaps  this  is  he."  And  when,  at  last,  he 
entered  Jerusalem  the  multitude  was  ready  to  shout,  "Blessed 
is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord :  Blessed  is  the 
kingdom  that  cometh,  the  kingdom  of  our  father  David" 
(Mark  ii.  9,  10).  The  people  were  especially  interested 
at  this  time.  Rome's  rule  was  becoming  intolerable.  The 
deliverance  must  be  near  at  hand. 

The  thought  of  the  Kingdom  was  an  essential  part  of 
Jewish  belief.  It  sprang  from  their  faith  in  God.  It  really 
meant  the  kingship  of  God,  God's  rule.  The  earth  was  the 
Lord's.  If  there  was  evil  in  It,  if  his  people  were  oppressed, 
that  could  only  be  for  a  time.  The  day  must  come  when  he 
would  overthrow  every  power  and  rule  himself.  "And  in 
the  days  of  those  kings  shall  the  God  of  heaven  set  up  a 
kingdom  which  shall  never  be  destroyed.  And  the  kingdom 
.  .  .  shall  be  given  to  the  people  of  the  saints  of  the  Most 
High"  (Dan  2.  44;  7.  27).  Here  was  the  heart  of  their 
hope — the  rule  of  God  meant  for  them  the  rule  of  Israel. 
God  would  overthrow  her  enemies  and  set  Israel  upon  the 
throne. 

Jesus  too  believed  that  the  rule  of  God  was  coming  in  the 
earth,  that  there  would  be  a  new  world  without  evil  and 
oppression  and  wrong.  He  proclaimed  the  good  news  that 
this  rule  was  near  at  hand.    And  yet  the  kingdom  of  God  in 

69 


The  interest 
in  the 
Kingdom 


Its  place  in 
Jewish  faith 


Jesus'  idea  of 
the  Kingdom 
and  his  idea 
of  God 


70  NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

Jesus'  teaching  had  a  different  meaning.  Nothing  is  said 
about  Rome,  nothing  of  the  overthrow  of  Israel's  enemies 
and  her  triumphant  rule.  What  he  has  to  say  does  not 
concern  men  as  Jews,  but  men  as  men.  He  even  bids  them 
render  to  Ccesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's.  He  declares 
that  many  shall  come  from  the  east  and  the  west  and  sit 
down  in  the  Kingdom  while  Jews  themselves  are  cast  out. 
The  real  difference  lay  in  the  different  thought  of  God.  If 
the  Kingdom  means  the  rule  of  God,  then  it  is  the  nature  of 
God  that  decides  what  that  rule  shall  be.  For  the  Jews 
Jehovah  was  King  of  Israel  and  his  kingship  meant  Israel's 
rule.  For  Jesus  the  King  was  Father,  holy  and  loving,  and 
Father  of  all  men.  The  rule  of  such  a  God  could  not  mean 
armies  and  thrones ;  it  must  mean  the  reign  of  righteousness 
and  peace  and  good  will  which  Jesus  set  forth  as  the  heart 
of  God. 
The  Kingdom       YoT  Jesus  the  kingdom  of  God  was,  first  of  all,  a  gift,  the 

as  the  highest    ,  .    ,  ,     .  .  ,     ,      .  t-     .      ,.,  , 

good  highest  good  that  man  could  desire.     It  is  like  the  treasure 

which  the  man  found  in  the  field,  for  whose  sake  he  sold 
all  that  he  had  that  he  might  buy  the  field.  It  is  like  the 
pearl  to  gain  which  the  merchant  parted  with  all  that  he 
possessed  (]\Iatt  13.  44-46).  Having  this,  everything  else 
would  be  added  to  a  man  (Matt  6.  33).  At  its  highest  this 
treasure  means  to  see  God  (Matt  5.  8).  For  that  reason  the 
first  gift  of  God's  rule  is  forgiveness  by  which  we  are 
admitted  to  God's  fellowship  (Luke  i.  yy ;  24.  47).  Else- 
where Jesus  uses  the  word  "life,"  or  the  term  "eternal  life," 
as  meaning  the  same  as  the  Kingdom,  as  will  be  seen  by 
comparing  Mark  10.  17,  30  with  10.  23  and  Matt  7.  14  with 
7.  21.  For  Jesus  the  rule  of  God  was  the  great  hope  of  men ; 
it  meant  the  overcoming  of  all  evil,  the  coming  of  all  good. 
For  that  reason  the  message  is  called  gospel,  "good  news." 
INIatt  II.  25-30,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  passages  in  the 
Gospels,  breathes  this  spirit  of  joy,  while  at  the  same  time 
its  closing  verses  suggest  some  of  the  blessings  of  the 
Kingdom. 


THE  KINGDOM  OP"  GOD 


71 


But  the  coming  rule  of  God  meant  also  a  challenge  and 
a  test.  Who  were  the  men  who  could  meet  such  a  God? 
The  test  that  Jesus  puts  is  a  very  simple  one.  It  is  the  test 
of  obedience  springing  from  a  true  life  within.  The  test  of 
the  tree  is  the  fruit.  "Not  everyone  that  saith  unto  me, 
Lord,  Lord,  shall  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven;  but 
he  that  doeth  the  will  of  my  Father  who  is  in  heaven" 
(Alatt  7.  15-23).  Only  such  a  life  would  stand  in  that  day 
(Matt  7.  24-27).  In  another  passage  Jesus  tells  more  par- 
ticularly what  this  obedience  means,  that  it  is  the  service  of 
our  fellow  men  in  their  need,  no  matter  who  they  are 
(]\Iatt  25.  31-46).  Such  obedience  is  not  simply  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  Kingdom ;  it  is  of  the  essence  of  the  Kingdom, 
for  the  rule  of  God  means  the  righteousness  of  man:  "Seek 
ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God  and  his  righteousness."  Here 
the  sharp  difference  between  Jesus  and  the  people  stands 
out.  The  Jews  were  luxuriating  in  imagining  all  the  joys 
and  delights  of  the  future  age  of  the  Kingdom.  Jesus  was 
summoning  his  disciples  to  earnestness  and  watchfulness. 
This  message  of  watchfulness  is  given  us  in  two  striking 
parables,  that  of  the  ten  virgins  and  that  of  the  master  and 
the  servants  (Matt  25.  1-13;  Luke  12.  35-46). 

Is  the  kingdom  of  God  in  Jesus'  teaching  something 
purely  inner  and  spiritual,  or  is  it  something  outer,  a  new 
society?  Undoubtedly  it  is  the  inner  and  spiritual  upon 
which  Jesus  lays  stress.  It  means  eternal  life,  as  we  have 
seen.  It  works  in  hidden  manner  like  the  leaven,  and  grows 
inconspicuously  like  the  mustard  seed  (Matt  13.  31-33). 
And  what  Jesus  says  about  the  people  who  enter  the  King- 
dom or  to  whom  it  belongs,  points  the  same  way;  it  is  the 
inner  spirit  that  is  decisive.  To  enter  the  Kingdom  one 
must  have  the  spirit  of  a  child  (Matt  18.  3).  It  is  hard 
for  the  rich  to  enter,  for  they  are  apt  to  be  proud  and 
contented  (Mark  10.  2t,).  In  beautiful  }ct  searching  manner 
the  Beatitudes  set  forth  this  inner  spirit  of  the  Kingdom, 
whose  blessings  belong  to  the  poor  in  spirit,  the  meek,  the 


The  Kingdom 
demands 
righteous- 
ness, repent- 
ance, watch- 
fulness 


The  Kingdom 
as  inner  and 
spiritual 


as  social 


72  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

pure  in  heart,  and  those  that  hunger  for  its  righteousness 
(Matt  5.  3-12).  When  the  Pharisees  asked  him  when  the 
Kingdom  would  come,  he  answered :  "The  kingdom  of  God 
Cometh  not  with  observation:  neither  shall  they  say,  Lo, 
here !  or,  There !  for  lo,  the  kingdom  of  God  is  within  you" 
(Luke  17.  20,  21),  They  were  thinking  of  a  political  state; 
for  Jesus  the  Kingdom  was,  first  of  all,  the  rule  of  God  in 
men's  hearts.  It  is  true  that  the  Jews  spoke  of  repentance 
and  obedience  to  the  law  as  necessary  before  the  Kingdom 
could  come.  When  Jesus  speaks  of  obedience  and  mercy, 
however,  he  is  not  speaking  simply  of  the  condition  upon 
which  men  may  obtain  the  Kingdom ;  these  are  for  him  the 
spirit  and  essence  of  the  Kingdom  itself. 
The  Kingdom  Yet  while  the  Kingdom  is,  first  of  all,  something  inner 
and  spiritual,  it  is  social  in  its  meaning  and  consequence. 
Jesus  was  neither  political  dreamer  nor  social  reformer, 
but  his  teaching  of  the  Kingdom  has  tremendous  social 
meaning.  Three  points  make  this  clear,  (i)  The  Kingdom 
means  God's  rule  in  all  the  life  of  men.  God  is  already 
in  his  world,  but  when  the  Kingdom  comes,  there  will  be 
no  life  not  ruled  by  him.  That  means  for  us  his  rule  in 
government  and  industry.  That  means  no  war,  no  oppres- 
sion in  state,  no  injustice  in  industry.  The  Kingdom  begins 
in  men's  hearts,  but  it  does  not  end  until  the  spirit  of  God 
rules  in  every  institution  and  relation  of  life.  (2)  The 
spirit  of  the  Kingdom  is  essentially  social.  It  must  always 
be  working  out  in  the  life  of  men.  The  love  and  service  of 
others  is  the  real  test  of  God's  kingship  with  men  (Matt 
25.  31-46).  In  his  Kingdom  the  first  is  to  be  the  last,  the 
servant  (Mark  9.  35).  "Whosoever  would  become  great 
among  you,  shall  be  3-our  minister ;  and  whosoever  would  be 
first  among  you,  shall  be  servant  of  all"  (Mark  10.  35-45). 
The  fruit  of  this  spirit  has  been  the  noble  history  of  missions 
and  philanthropies,  the  modern  movements  of  reform  and 
social  service,  and  the  modern  passion  for  social  justice. 
(3)   The  Kingdom  involved  a  community,  a  brotherhood. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD 


n 


Jesus  thought  of  the  men  of  the  Kingdom  not  as  sul)jects 
but  as  sons,  and  sonship  means  brotherhood.  The  spirit  of 
the  Kingdom  must  bring  the  members  of  the  Kingdom  to- 
gether. The  first  circle  of  Jesus'  disciples  was  the  promise 
of  what  was  to  come.  The  church  as  a  fellowship  was  the 
inevitable  expression  of  the  Kingdom.  The  end  could 
only  be  what  Paul  foresaw,  the  breaking  down  of  the  divi- 
sions and  enmities  that  had  separated  men  in  classes  and 
nations,  and  the  final  bringing  together  of  all  men  into  one 
brotherhood,  the  family  of  God. 

Was  the  Kingdom  in  the  future  with  Jesus,  or  was  it  "^^^  Kingdom 

.  as  future  and 

already  present?  It  seems  certain  that  Jesus  thought  that  as  present 
the  Kingdom  was  in  the  future,  although  very  near.  That 
is  the  meaning  of  the  word,  "The  kingdom  of  God  is  at 
hand."  It  is  at  the  door.  "There  are  some  here  of  them 
that  stand  by,"  he  said,  "who  shall  in  no  wise  taste  of 
death,  till  they  see  the  kingdom  of  God  come  with  power" 
(Mark  9.  i).  On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  just  as  clear 
that  Jesus  thought  that  the  beginnings  of  the  Kingdom  were 
already  present.  The  rule  of  God  meant  the  overthrow  of 
evil  in  the  world  and  the  reign  of  God  in  men's  lives.  That 
he  saw  already  taking  place.  He  saw  the  sons  of  the  King- 
dom present  (Matt  17.  26),  the  sons  of  the  bridechamber 
(Mark  2.  19).  He  saw  publicans  and  harlots  going  into 
the  kingdom  of  God  (Matt  21.  31).  He  pointed  John's 
disciples  to  what  was  already  taking  place  (]\Iatt  11.  2-6). 
And  he  discerned  it  especially  in  his  healings.  He  had 
entered  the  house  of  the  strong  man  and  had  bound  the 
powers  of  evil ;  he  had  seen  Satan  fallen  as  lightning  from 
heaven  (Luke  10.  18).  It  was  God's  rule  even  now  dis- 
placing the  rule  of  evil.  "If  I  by  the  Spirit  of  God  cast  out 
demons,  then  is  the  kingdom  of  God  come  upon  you" 
(Matt  12.  22-29). 

These  were,  indeed,  only  small  beginnings.  On  every 
side  the  power  of  evil  still  lay,  while  the  Kingdom  itself 
was  coming  quietly  and  almost  unnoticed.    There  are  three 


Parables 
of  encour- 
agement 


74  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

parables  of  the  Kingdom  that  Jesus  seems  to  have  spoken 
primarily  to  hearten  his  disciples  who  might  be  discouraged 
by  these  facts.  They  are  those  of  the  wheat  and  tares,  the 
mustard  seed,  and  the  leaven  (Matt  13.  24-33).  The  seed 
which  they  were  scattering  was  growing  slowly  and  there 
were  tares,  but  it  was  growing  surely,  and  grain  and  weed 
would  be  made  manifest  some  day.  The  Kingdom  was  only 
a  mustard  seed  now ;  it  would  be  a  tree  by  and  by.  Now 
it  was  like  hidden  leaven,  but  it  would  permeate  the  whole 
lump  after  a  while.  Above  all,  they  were  to  remember 
this,  that  it  was  theirs  simply  to  scatter  the  seed ;  the  fruitage 
came  from  a  power  not  their  own.  "The  earth  beareth  fruit 
of  herself ;  first  the  blade,  then  the  ear,  then  the  full  grain 
in  the  ear"  (Mark  4.  26-29). 
The  meaning  Tlicsc  two  couvictious  apparently  lay  side  by  side  in  the 
Kingdom  mind  of  Jesus :  first,  that  the  Kingdom  was  already  here 
wherever  God's  will  was  being  done  and  sinners  were 
turning  to  him  and  evil  was  being  overthrown ;  second,  that 
in  its  fullness  and  power  it  should  come  some  time  in  the 
near  future.  The  important  element  in  Jesus'  teaching  is 
not  this  thought  of  the  exact  time  of  the  coming;  he  himself 
said  that  no  one  knew  the  day  or  the  hour  except  his  Father 
in  heaven  (Mark  13.  28-32).  It  lay,  rather,  in  three  great 
truths :  ( i )  there  shall  be  a  new  earth  in  which  the  rule  of 
God  shall  prevail  in  all  the  world  ;  (2)  this  rule,  or  kingdom, 
will  be  ethical  and  spiritual,  not  an  outer  political  reign,  but 
an  inner  spirit  of  righteousness  and  love;  (3)  this  rule  will 
show  itself  in  the  way  in  which  men  live  together,  in  all 
the  relations  and  institutions  of  life;  and  its  final  manifes- 
tation will  be  a  family,  or  community,  of  brothers  upon  the 
earth. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING    AND    STUDY 

Parables  of  the  Kingdom:  Matt  13.  24-52;  25.  1-13;  Luke  12.  35- 
46;  Mark  4.  26,  29.  Other  passages:  Matt  11.  25-30;  7.  15-27; 
5.  3-12;  II.  2-6;  12.  22-29;  Mark  13.  28-32. 

Read  the  following  parables  and  state  what  thought  concerning 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD  75 

the  Kingdom  each  of  these  conveys :  the  hidden  treasure  and  the 
pearl  (Matt  13.  44-46)  ;  the  net  and  the  fishes  (Matt  13.  47-50)  ; 
the  wheat  and  the  tares  (Matt  13.  24-30)  ;  the  virgins  (Matt  25. 
1-13)  ;  the  v^^atchful  servants  (Luke  12.  35-46)  ;  the  mustard  seed 
(Matt  13.  31,  32);  the  leaven  (Matt  13.  33);  the  earth  bearing 
fruit   (^lark  4.  26,  29). 


CHAPTER    XI 


THE  FATHER 


Jesus'  central 
thought 


The  God  of 
the  prophets 


The  God  of 
Judaism 


Despite  the  place  which  it  occupied,  it  is  not  the  idea  of 
the  Kingdom  that  determines  the  faith  and  the  message  of 
Jesus  so  much  as  the  thought  of  God.  It  was  this  thought 
of  God  that  filled  his  own  life.  His  conception  of  the  world 
and  of  men,  of  what  man  must  do  and  what  he  may  hope 
for,  all  depended  upon  God. 

Jesus  does  not  come  proclaiming  any  new  God.  He 
brings  to  men  Jehovah,  the  God  of  their  fathers,  "the  God 
of  Abraham,  and  the  God  of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob" 
(Mark  12.  26).  He  speaks  the  simple  ancient  creed:  "Hear, 
O  Israel ;  the  Lord  our  God,  the  Lord  is  one"  (Mark  12.  29). 
We  may  note  three  elements  in  that  lofty  prophetic  faith 
upon  which  Jesus  built:  (i)  Jehovah  was  one  God,  God  of 
all  the  earth ;  and  not  merely  creator  and  ruler  of  nature 
(Gen  i),  but  ruling  the  nations  and  moving  in  their  history 
(Isa  40  and  45).  (2)  He  was  the  God  of  mercy,  the 
covenant  God  who  had  chosen  this  nation  and  redeemed 
it  (Deut  5.  6;  Hos  11).  (3)  He  was  the  holy  God,  and  it 
was  holiness  that  he  asked  from  men.  This  holiness  was 
not  sacrifice  and  ritual,  but  justice  and  mercy  to  fellow  men 
(Isa  I ;  Mic  6.  6-8;  Amos  5.  21-24). 

Israel  had  not  kept  this  height.  Her  religion  had  become 
narrow,  centered  in  her  own  welfare.  She  had  lost  the 
sense  of  Jehovah  as  the  living  God,  present  with  her  and 
speaking  to  her.  A  great  system  of  laws  and  rules  had  taken 
God's  place.  God  was  a  great  bookkeeper,  keeping  record 
of  men's  obedience.  Religion  was  to  observe  these  laws. 
If  she  did  this,  Israel  believed  that  at  some  future  time  God 
would  again  assert  himself  and  rule  in  her  midst.     For  the 

76 


THE  FATHER  -JJ 

present,  since  God  was  holy  he  must  be  separate  from  this 
evil  world. 

Tesus  sroes  back  to  the  faith  of  the  prophets ;  though  not  J^sus  and 

•>  <=>  .     ,  the  prophets 

dependent  upon  them,  (i)  For  Jesus  too  there  is  but  one 
God,  the  God  of  all  power,  whom  men  are  to  reverence  and 
fear.  He  teaches  his  disciples  to  pray,  "Our  Father,  who 
art  in  heaven,  Hallowed  be  thy  name"  (Matt  6.  9,  10) .  This 
reverence  is  in  his  own  soul;  'T  thank  thee,  O  Father,  Lord 
of  heaven  and  earth,"  he  prays  (Matt  11.  25).  With  this 
God  all  things  are  possible  (Mark  10.  27),  Jesus  chides  the 
questioning  Sadducees  with  not  knowing  the  power  of  God. 
Their  petty  quibbling,  with  wdiich  they  tried  to  make  him 
ridiculous,  falls  down  before  his  great  thought  of  God 
(Mark  12.  18,  o.'j).  There  is  nothing  here  of  the  mere 
sentimental  good  nature  that  some  people  have  read  into  the 
teaching  of  Jesus.  He  says  plainly  that  men  are  to  fear 
God  (Matt  10.  28).  (2)  God  is  the  living  God,  present  in 
his  world.  As  the  parables  show,  this  world  was  constantly 
speaking  to  Jesus  about  God.  The  birds  and  the  flowers 
were  witnesses  of  God's  care  (Matt  6.  26-30).  He  could 
even  say  of  the  worthless  sparrow  dead  by  the  roadside, 
that  it  had  not  fallen  without  his  Father's  knowledge  (Matt 
10.  29).  (3)  That  Jesus  believed  in  the  holiness  of  God 
need  not  be  pointed  out.  He  did  not  often  use  the  word, 
because  it  had  come  to  mean  something  ritualistic  and  ex- 
ternal, but  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  shows  the  prophetic 
thought  of  a  God  whose  supreme  concern  is  the  holy  life, 
and  whose  kingdom  belongs  to  the  pure  and  merciful  and 
those  that  hunger  after  righteousness. 

The  heart  of  Jesus'  thought  of  God  is  the  idea  of  Father-  The  Father 
hood.  It  is  the  mark  of  his  influence  over  the  faith  of  men 
that  it  is  this  name  by  which  men  everywhere  to-day  call 
upon  God,  The  change  is  more  apparent  when  we  realize 
that  in  the  Psalms,  Israel's  book  of  worship,  Jehovah  is 
never  called  upon  as  Father.  The  Old  Testament  shows  us 
God  as  the  Father  of  his  people,  that  is,  of  the  nation,  and 


78 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  law  of 
Fatherhood 


God  values 
every  single 
soul 


as  Father  of  the  king  as  representative  of  the  nation ;  but 
he  is  not  referred  to  as  the  Father  of  individual  men  and 
men  do  not  pray  to  him  as  such  (Hos  ii.  i ;  Isa  i.  2;  Deut 
I.  31 ;  Isa  63.  16).  For  Israel  Jehovah  was  the  King.  The 
King,  like  any  ruler,  would  show  fatherly  kindness,  but  he 
was  first  of  all  King,  and  religion  was  obedience  to  him. 
For  Jesus  God  is,  first  of  all.  Father.  That  is  his  nature, 
his  heart.  And  religion  is  being  a  son ;  it  is  fellowship  with 
the  heavenly  Father.  There  is  no  question  that  the  source 
for  this  idea  of  God  and  of  religion  was  Jesus'  own  con- 
sciousness. It  was  out  of  this  consciousness  that  Jesus  said, 
"All  things  have  been  deHvered  unto  me  of  my  Father : 
and  no  one  knoweth  the  Son,  save  the  Father;  neither  doth 
any  know  the  Father,  save  the  Son"  (Matt  11.  27). 

The  law  of  Fatherhood  Jesus  shows  to  be  forgiveness  and 
grace.  The  religion  of  Jesus'  day  was  steeped  in  legalism. 
It  was  a  matter  of  earning  and  getting.  It  brought  about, 
on  the  one  hand,  a  spirit  of  pride  in  those  that  were  con- 
scious of  keeping  the  law,  on  the  other  hand  a  hard  and  even 
contemptuous  spirit  toward  others.  "I  thank  thee,  that  I 
am  not  as  the  rest  of  men,  extortioners,  unjust,  kdulterers, 
or  even  as  this  publican.  I  fast  twice  in  the  week;  I  give 
tithes  of  all  that  I  get"  (Luke  18.  11,  12).  Men  who  could 
pray  in  this  fashion  naturally  criticized  Jesus  severely.  For 
Jesus,  as  we  have  seen,  received  men  who  were  not  keeping 
the  law,  he  sat  at  table  with  them,  and  even  forgave  their 
sins.  Jesus  seemed  to  the  Pharisees  to  be  undermining  the 
very  foundations  of  religion,  which  they  saw  in  the  ideas 
of  law  and  of  merit  and  reward. 

Jesus  answered  them  in  a  series  of  parables  In  which  he 
justified  his  own  course  by  pointing  out  this  nature  of  God 
as  Father.  Three  of  these  parables  are  found  in  Luke  15, 
though  probably  not  all  spoken  on  the  same  occasion.  The 
first  two  have  the  same  meaning.  These  sinners,  he  would 
say,  are  the  Father's  children,  his  possession.  Every  one  is 
of  value  to  him.    The  shepherd  who  has  lost  a  sheep  is  not 


THE  FATHER  79 

satisfied,  though  he  may  have  ninety-nine  in  the  fold  He 
must  find  that  lost  sheep.  Like  the  woman  who  has  found 
her  lost  coin,  he  rejoices  over  his  lost  sheep  that  he  has 
found.  And  so  these  sinners  that  are  turning  to  the  Kingdom 
are  filling  their  Father's  heart  with  joy  (Luke  15.  i-io). 
The  point  of  the  parahle  is  the  value  of  the  human  soul. 
The  same  thought  is  in  the  story  of  Zacchseus.  There  too 
he  was  criticized  because  he  had  "gone  in  to  lodge  with  a 
man  that  is  a  sinner" ;  and  his  answer  was,  "He  also  is  a 
son  of  Abraham." 

Luke's  third  parable  is  commonly  known  as  that  of  the  The  parable 
prodigal  son.  It  might  better  be  called  the  parable  of  the  i^g  father 
forgiving  father.  It  is  not  meant  as  a  picture  of  sin  and 
its  consequences.  It  is  a  picture  of  the  forgiving  heart  of 
God.  When  the  lost  son  comes  back  an  earthly  father  does 
not  weigh  his  desert.  He  rejoices  that  he  has  regained  his 
son,  and  forgives.  That  is  the  way  with  God.  All  the  rest 
of  the  parable,  the  boy's  impertinent  demand,  his  foolishness 
and  wickedness,  his  degradation,  his  filth  and  rags — these 
are  simply  the  strong  colors  that  Jesus  uses  to  bring  out 
more  clearly  the  wholly  unmerited  mercy  of  the  father. 
But  he  makes  us  see  that  this  is  really  the  heart  of  God 
(Luke  15.  11-32). 

The  parable  of  the  laborers  is  more  drastic  still  in  routing  The  parable 
out  the  whole  merit  and  reward  idea  of  religion  (Matt  20.  laborers 
1-16).  A  steward,  or  overseer,  is  hiring  men  in  the  market 
place.  Some  he  finds  early  in  the  morning  and  sets  at 
work.  Fie  goes  back  in  the  forenoon,  at  noon,  and  in  the 
afternoon,  hiring  others  as  he  finds  them.  Late  in  the 
afternoon  he  finds  still  others,  who  work  for  him  the  brief 
remainder  of  the  day.  When  night  comes  each  man  receives 
the  regular  day's  wage,  and  the  last  named  as  much  as  the 
rest.  At  which  the  first  complain,  pointing  to  the  greater 
work  that  they  had  done.  The  steward's  answer  was,  "Is 
it  not  lawful  for  me  to  do  what  I  will  with  mine  own?  or 
is  thine  eye  evil,  because  I  am  good?"     The  old  allegorical 


8o  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

method,  by  which  each  point  and  person  in  the  parable  had 
a  special  meaning,  would  land  us  here  in  endless  difficulties. 
If  we  are  contented  with  the  central  point  or  argument, 
then  the  meaning  is  clear.  God  is  giving  the  Kingdom  to 
penitent  sinners  as  the  steward  paid  the  late  comers  among 
the  workmen ;  it  is  not  what  they  have  earned  but  what  his 
goodness  bestows.  The  complaining  workmen  are  like 
the  Pharisees,  grudging  this  gift.  But  God  is  not  the  master, 
giving  servants  what  they  earn,  he  is  the  Father,  giving 
and  forgiving  because  that  is  his  nature.  Matt  5.  43-48 
brings  out  the  same  truth. 
God's  King-         The  King  is  Father,  therefore,  not  taskmaster.    But  that 

ship  and  . 

man's  trust  IS  not  all,  the  Father  is  King.  This  gracious  and  merciful 
Father  rules  all  the  world  and  therefore  men  may  trust 
in  him  and  be  unafraid.  Very  beautifully  Jesus  brings  this 
out:  "Behold  the  birds  of  the  heaven,  that  they  sow  not, 
neither  do  they  reap,  nor  gather  into  barns;  and  your 
heavenly  Father  feedeth  them.  Consider  the  lilies  of  the 
field,  how  they  grow ;  they  toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin : 
yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  even  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was 
not  arrayed  like  one  of  these"  (Matt  6.  26,  28,  29).  Jesus 
saw  love  and  power  joined  together.  That  was  why  men, 
when  they  feared  God,  could  rejoice  and  fear  nothing  else. 
"Be  not  afraid  of  them  that  kill  the  body,"  he  told  his 
disciples,  "but  are  not  able  to  kill  the  soul;  but  rather  fear 
him  who  is  able  to  destroy  both  soul  and  body  in  hell.  Are 
not  two  sparrows  sold  for  a  penny?  and  not  one  of  them 
shall  fall  on  the  ground  without  your  Father :  but  the  very 
hairs  of  your  head  are  all  numbered.  Fear  not  therefore : 
ye  are  of  more  value  than  many  sparrows"  (Matt  10.  28-31). 
God  gives  But  the  greatest  gift  of  this  Fatherhood  is  not  this  care, 

fellowship  rior  cvcu  forgivcucss,  but  fellowship.  That  is  what  the 
forgiveness  of  the  Father  means ;  it  is  the  admission  of  the 
sons  to  the  Father  despite  their  sin  and  ill  desert  (Luke  15. 
20-24).  Such  a  fellowship  meant  peace  of  conscience  and 
quiet  of  soul,  and  the  strength  that  comes  from  trust  when 


THE  FATHER  8i 

a  man  knows  that  all  his  life  is  under  God's  care.  The 
deepest  meaning  of  this  fellowship,  or  sonship,  Jesus  showed 
in  his  own  life.  The  disciples  saw  it  in  his  praying,  and 
asked  him  to  teach  his  secret  to  them  (Luke  ii.  i).  He 
himself  was  conscious  that  it  was  his  great  task  to  lead 
men  into  this  life  of  sonship.  That,  indeed,  was  his  double 
task:  to  show  men  the  Father,  to  make  men  sons.  That 
consciousness  is  expressed  in  a  wonderful  passage  that 
rises  to  a  lyric  note:  "1  thank  thee,  O  Father,  Lord  of 
heaven  and  earth,  because  thou  hast  hid  these  things  from 
the  wise  and  prudent,  and  hast  revealed  them  unto  babes. 
Even  so,  Father;  for  so  it  seemed  good  in  thy  sight.  All 
things  are  delivered  unto  me  of  my  Father:  and  no  man 
knoweth  the  Son,  but  the  Father ;  neither  knoweth  any  man 
the  Father,  save  the  Son,  and  he  to  whomsoever  the  Son 
will  reveal  him.  Come  unto  me,  all  }'e  that  labor  and  are 
heavy  laden,  and  I  will  give  you  rest.  Take  my  yoke  upon 
you,  and  learn  of  me ;  for  I  am  meek  and  lowly  in  heart : 
and  ye  shall  find  rest  unto  your  souls.  For  my  yoke  is 
easy,  and  my  burden  is  light"  (jMatt  ii.  25-30).  It  was 
this  fellowship,  with  its  love  and  gratitude  and  trust,  that 
was  for  Jesus'  followers  the  spirit  and  power  of  a  new  life. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING    AND    STUDY 

Read  Matt  6.  25-34:   10.  23-31;   11.  25-30. 

Read  the  four  parables  in  Luke  15  and  Matt  20.  1-16.  Tell  the 
story  and   bring  out  the   argument   of  each. 

Read  Matt  5.  43-48  and  Luke  19.  i-io.  Recall  from  previous 
study  the  instances  of  a  Pharisee  and  of  a  publican  from  whom 
Jesus  accepted  hospitality. 


Jesus'  idea 
of  religion 


Jesus'  idea 
righteous- 
ness 


of 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  LIFE   WITH   GOD 

Jesus'  conception  of  religion  may  perhaps  best  be  stated 
in  the  phrase,  fellowship  with  God  in  the  service  of  men ; 
to  live  first  as  a  son  with  the  Father,  second  as  a  brother 
with  men. 

The  central  idea  of  religion  for  the  Jews  of  Jesus'  day 
was  righteousness.  In  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  IMatthew 
has  brought  together  the  teachings  of  Jesus  in  which  his 
idea  of  righteousness  is  set  forth  in  contrast  with  that  of 
the  Pharisees,  who  were  the  acknowledged  leaders  of  the 
people.  The  life  with  God  that  Jesus  taught  demanded 
righteousness  also,  but  it  is  something  far  different  from 
the  keeping  of  rules  which  the  Pharisees  taught,  (i)  It 
was  an  inner  righteousness;  not  many  laws  but  one  spirit. 
They  had  criticized  him  for  his  practice  (Luke  15.  2)  ;  he 
declared  that  it  was  simply  a  higher  righteousness  for  which 
he  stood  (Matt  5.  20).  Outward  deeds  may  do  for  a  serv- 
ant, but  the  son  must  have  an  inner  spirit  like  his  father. 
The  angry  spirit  is  a  sin  as  truly  as  the  deed  of  murder. 
The  lustful  glance  is  as  truly  wrong  as  adultery.  It  is  not 
enough  to  avoid  profanity ;  there  must  be  a  simple  sincerity 
back  of  our  speech.  The  mere  rule  of  give  as  you  get, 
both  good  and  evil,  will  not  suffice ;  there  must  be  an  inner 
spirit  of  good  will  such  as  our  Father  shows  to  all  men 
(Matt  5.  21-48).  Long  before  this,  Jeremiah  had  spoken 
of  the  day  when  the  law  was  to  be  no  more  an  outward 
rule  but  an  inner  spirit  (Jer  31.  31-34),  and  the  psalmist 
had  prayed  for  inner  purity  (Psa  51.  10).  Such  teaching 
Jesus  was  completing,  or  "fulfilling"  (Matt  5.  17).  (2)  It 
was  a  social  righteousness ;  men  were  to  show  it  in  serving 
their  brethren.     That  was  to  be  the  test  in  the  judgment 

82 


THE  LIFE  WITH  GOD  83 

(Matt  25.  40).  The  way  to  show  love  to  God  was  by 
showing-  it  to  men:  "Whosoever  shall  receive  one  of  such 
little  children  in  my  name,  receiveth  me:  and  whosoever 
receiveth  me,  receiveth  not  me,  but  him  that  sent  me"  (Mark 
9.  37).  To  be  reconciled  to  one's  brother  was  more  im- 
portant than  bringing  a  gift  to  the  altar  (Matt  5.  21-24). 
(3)  It  was  an  ethical  righteousness.  Mere  religious  rules 
and  ceremonies  did  not  count.  Jesus  protested  against  the 
Pharisees  that  they  were  defeating  morality  by  their  very 
rules  (Matt  7.  1-13).  It  was  the  heart  of  a  man  that 
counted,  not  the  ritual  (Mark  7.  14-23).  (4)  This  righteous- 
ness in  one  word  meant  sonship,  "that  ye  may  be  sons  of 
your  Father  who  is  in  heaven"  (Matt  5.  45).  Higher  than 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  go :  "Ye  therefore  shall  be  perfect, 
as  your  heavenly  Father  is  perfect"  (Matt  5.  48).  In  a 
mere  religion  of  law  such  a  demand  would  be  impossible. 
But  Jesus'  religion  is  one  of  grace,  and  not  simply  of  de- 
mand. God  does  not  ask  men  to  become  sons  before  he 
will  receive  them.  Sonship  is  a  gift,  not  simply  a  task. 
That  is  the  meaning  of  forgiveness :  God  receives  men  as 
sons,  though  they  are  sinners,  that  by  his  help  they  may  live 
as  sons. 

It  is  the  term  "sonship,"  not  "righteousness,"  that  gives  The  religion 
us  the  best  description  of  Jesus'  idea  of  religion  and  the   o^  sorisiiip  of 

i^  •'  o  humility  and 

life  with  God.  The  first  characteristic  of  this  religion  of  of  desire 
sonship  is  the  spirit  of  humility  and  desire.  That  follows 
from  its  very  nature  as  God's  gracious  gift  to  us.  God's 
first  need  is  to  find  in  us  an  openness  and  a  longing  for 
what  he  has  to  give.  That  is  the  meaning  of  his  word 
about  the  child :  "Whosoever  shall  not  receive  the  kingdom 
of  God  as  a  little  child,  he  shall  in  no  wise  enter  therein" 
(Mark  10.  15).  "Except  ye  turn,  and  become  as  little 
children,  ye  shall  in  no  wise  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
heaven"  (Matt  18,  3),  It  is  the  same  spirit  that  he  praises 
in  the  Beatitudes,  The  Kingdom  is  God's  gift,  but  men 
must  have  the  humble  spirit  and  the  earnest  desire  in  order 


84  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

to  receive  it.  And  so  his  beatitude  is  for  the  poor  in  spirit, 
for  those  that  mourn,  for  the  meek,  for  those  that  hunger 
and  thirst  after  righteousness  (Matt  5.  3-9).  It  was  this 
spirit  that  he  found  wanting  in  the  Pharisees  and  in  so 
many  others.  They  were  too  well  satisfied  with  themselves 
(Luke  18.  11)  ;  for  Jesus  there  is  a  divinity  in  discontent. 
That  is  the  meaning  of  the  parable  of  the  great  supper. 
It  was  called  forth  by  a  pious  ejaculation  on  the  part  of 
some  man  who  was  at  the  supper  table  with  Jesus :  "Blessed 
is  he  that  shall  eat  bread  in  the  kingdom  of  God."  In 
reply,  Jesus  tells  the  story  of  those  that  refused  the  great 
invitation  (Luke  14.  15-24).  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  says, 
when  the  great  invitation  comes  men  refuse  it.  That,  as 
we  have  seen,  was  what  stirred  him  with  joy  in  his  contact 
with  so  many  sinners :  these  were  humble  and  eager,  were 
pressing  into  the  kingdom  of  God,  were  even  taking  it  in 
their  eagerness  by  storm  (Matt  21.  31;  11.  12). 

This  leads  to  the  second  quality  that  Jesus  demands — 
a  certain  decision  of  character,  a  whole-hearted  surrender 
of  life.  Religion  was  no  incident  with  him ;  it  meant  a 
man's  whole  life.  What  God  gives  is  everything;  he  de- 
mands everything  in  return.  Jesus  has  a  fine  impatience 
with  the  superficial  life :  it  is  not  saying,  "Lord,  Lord,"  that 
counts,  but  doing  the  will  of  his  Father  (Matt  7.  21).  He 
has  as  little  place  for  the  divided  life:  "No  man  can  serve 
two  masters."  Such  a  life  means  anxiety,  and  anxiety 
means  wickedness  (Matt  6.  24,  25).  Jesus'  own  life  was 
all  of  one  piece.  It  had  the  strength  that  comes  with  a 
great  and  dominant  purpose.  The  double  life,  he  saw, 
meant  not  only  weakness  but  darkness.  Moral  vision  comes 
with  singleness  and  sincerity  of  soul.  "If  therefore  thine 
eye  be  single,  thy  whole  body  shall  be  full  of  light.  But 
if  thine  eye  be  evil,  thy  whole  body  shall  be  full  of  darkness" 
(Matt  6.  22,  23).  The  stern  demands  that  Jesus  makes  do 
not  mean  narrowness  or  asceticism,  but  simpl)'  spiritual 
vision  and  moral  earnestness.     "Narrow  is  the  gate,  and 


THE  LIFE  WITH  GOD 


85 


straitened  the  way,  that  leadeth  unto  hfe"  (Matt  7.  13,  14). 
"He  that  doth  not  take  his  cross  and  follow  after  me,  is  not 
worthy  of  me"  (Matt  10.  34-39).  The  foundation  of  a  strong 
life  is  not  a  passing  impulse  but  a  clear  decision  that  counts 
the  cost.  The  man  who  builds  or  the  king  who  makes 
war  ought  to  look  to  the  end  and  not  simply  the  beginning. 
A  man  must  deliberately  decide  that  if  necessary  he  will 
sacrifice  the  closest  tie  or  give  up  life  itself.  That  is  what 
Jesus  means  by  the  startling  word,  "If  any  man  cometh 
unto  me,  and  hateth  not  his  own  father,  and  mother,  and 
wife,  and  children,  and  brethren,  and  sisters,  yea,  and  his 
own  life  also,  he  cannot  be  my  disciple"  (Luke  14.  25-33). 
This  is  not  asceticism.  Asceticism  is  the  denial  of  life. 
Jesus'  attitude  toward  life  is  everywhere  affirmative.  Cut 
off  thy  right  hand,  he  says,  pluck  out  the  right  eye,  but 
make  sure  of  life  (Mark  9.  43-48), 

These  demands  of  Jesus  raise  the  question  as  to  his  at-  Jesus'  atti- 
titude  toward  the  world  in  general  and  toward  riches  in   ^'^^  towud 

°  the  world 

particular.     As  to  the  world  of  nature,  Jesus'  teaching  as  and  riches 

we  have  noted  it  so  far  shows  his  simple  pleasure  in  birds 

and  flowers  and  growing  grain  and  all  the  life  about  him. 

It  was  his   Father's  house,   and   it   spoke  to  him   of  his 

Father's  wisdom  and  goodness.    There  is  no  dualism  here. 

But  his  clear  vision  showed  him  that  all  about  him  were 

men  who  were  losing  their  life  because  they  saw  and  loved 

only  the  world  of  things.     No  more  searching  words  are 

found  in  his  teaching  than  those  that  warn  of  the  peril  of 

riches.     But  it  is  not  hatred  of  the  world  that  sounds  in 

them,  only  the  love  of  men.     Three  stories  bring  us  this 

lesson,  each  in  some  special  aspect.    The  first  shows  us  how 

wealth  blinds  a  man  to  the  real  meaning  and  the  real  riches 

of  life.     It  is  the  story  of  the  rich  farmer  joining  field  to 

field  and  adding  barn  to  barn,  as  though  that  were  the 

end  of  life,    Jesus  writes  his  epitaph  in  two  words:  "thou 

fool"   (Luke   12,   13-21).     The  second  shows  how  wealth 

dulls  a  man's  ears  to  any  spiritual  appeal  and  hardens  his 


86 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  life 
of  trust 


The  place 
of  prayer 
with  Jesus 


heart  toward  his  fellows.  Dives  feasts  and  has  no  thought 
for  Lazarus.  Dives  thinks  that  his  brothers  would  repent 
if  Lazarus  were  sent  back  to  earth,  but  Abraham  points  out 
that  his  brothers  have  what  he  had  on  earth,  Moses  and  the 
prophets  (Luke  i6.  19-31).  Riches  tend  to  make  a  man 
self-sufficient  and  proud.  The  rich  man  is  used  to  having 
men  defer  to  his  judgment  and  bow  to  his  will.  He  is 
usually  far  removed  from  that  humility  and  sense  of  need 
which  Jesus  set  forth.  It  is  hard  for  such  a  man  to  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  The  third  is  the  story  of  the 
rich  young  ruler.  Here,  at  least,  is  a  man  of  wealth  and 
station  who  seems  wholly  in  earnest:  "What  shall  I  do 
that  I  may  inherit  eternal  life?"  Mark  says  that  he  ran 
to  meet  Jesus  and  knelt  before  him.  But  he  cannot  meet 
the  final  test.  Jesus  finds  his  point  of  weakness.  He  would 
fain  have  eternal  life,  but  there  is  one  thing  that  he  rates 
still  higher.  And  so  he  turns  away  (Mark  10.  17-27).  A 
man's  wealth  so  easily  becomes  his  master,  and  "No  man 
can  serve  two  masters.  .  .  .  Ye  canot  serve  God  and  mam- 
mon." 

The  third  principle  of  the  life  of  sonship  is  trust.  If 
the  love  of  the  world  is  wrong,  as  we  have  just  seen,  so 
also  is  the  fear  of  the  world.  Jesus  puts  them  side  by  side 
(Matt  6.  19-34).  Both  of  them  are  paganism,  putting- 
something  else  up  as  a  god,  or  as  a  power  to  stand  beside 
God.  For  Jesus  God  stood  not  only  first  but  alone.  When 
a  man  really  loved  God  everything  else  was  given  to  him 
with  that  (Matt  6.  33).  When  a  man  really  feared  God, 
there  was  nothing  else  of  which  to  be  afraid.  Anxiety, 
therefore,  was  a  sin.  In  beautiful  pictures  Jesus  shows 
us  the  God  who  cares  for  all  the  world,  even  the  little 
worthless  sparrow.  His  own  life  showed  the  strength  and 
peace  which  came  from  such  a  trust,  as  he  moved  on  sure  of 
God  and  fearless  of  all  else  (Luke  13.  31,  32). 

Prayer  is  the  simplest  and  most  natural  expression  of 
this  life  of  trust.     How  important  it  was  for  Jesus  himself 


THE  LIFE  WITH  GOD  87 

we  have  already  seen.  The  times  of  crisis  in  his  life  show 
Jesus  at  prayer.  This  is  in  connection  with  the  days  of 
meditation  and  temptation  before  he  begins  his  ministry. 
It  appears  again  at  Capernaum.  He  spends  the  night  in 
prayer  before  he  chooses  the  twelve.  It  is  the  same  at 
Cassarea  Philippi,  the  turning  point  in  his  work,  and  again 
at  Gethsemane,  when  he  faces  the  cross  and  death. 

Jesus  found  men  ignorant  of  the  life  of  praver  and  in-   The  cncour- 

..  -f,  .         _,      ,  ,         , .     .  '         ,  .  agement  to 

diiierent  to  it ;  God  was  master  and  religion  was  keeping  prayer 
laws  and  earning  rewards.  Jesus'  doctrine  of  prayer  fol- 
lowed inevitably  from  the  teaching  about  the  character  of 
the  Father  and  the  nature  of  the  life  of  his  sons.  If  the 
fathers  that  we  know  give  good  gifts  to  their  children,  shall 
not  the  Father  who  is  all  goodness  do  this  and  much  more? 
Therefore  take  courage ;  pray.  If  you  ask,  it  shall  be  given 
you.  If  you  seek,  you  shall  find.  If  you  knock,  it  shall  be 
opened  to  you  (Matt.  7.  7-1 1).  This  confident  spirit,  he 
said,  is  the  greatest  power  in  our  lives.  He  puts  this  truth 
in  his  usual  picture  speech:  "If  ye  had  faith  as  a  grain  of 
mustard  seed,  ye  would  say  unto  this  sycamine  tree,  Be  thou 
rooted  up,  and  be  thou  planted  in  the  sea ;  and  it  would 
obey  you"  (Luke  17:  6).  "All  things  are  possible  to  him 
that  believeth"  (Mark  9.  23). 

The  same  lesson  of  encouragement  to  prayer  is  brought  Two  parables 
by  two  parables  that  are  often  misunderstood.  The  first  agement 
is  the  story  of  the  unwilling  friend,  whose  neighbor  has 
had  unexpected  guests.  These  have  come  at  night  and 
there  is  no  bread  in  the  house.  So  he  goes  to  his  friend. 
The  friend  is  in  bed  and  does  not  want  to  be  disturbed, 
but  he  gives  in  at  last  just  because  the  neighbor  keeps  up 
his  knocking  (Luke  11.  5-13).  The  second  is  the  story  of 
the  unjust  judge.  He  has  no  interest  in  the  poor  widow, 
and  no  impulse  of  justice  moves  him  to  hear  her  case.  But 
he  yields  at  last  just  to  get  rid  of  her  (Luke  18.  1-8). 
These  parables  do  not  teach  importunity  in  prayer.  It 
is  the  pagan  heart  that  diinks  it  shall  be  heard   for   its 


88 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


How  to 
pray 


Faith  in  God, 
not  faith  in 
prayers 


much  speaking  (Matt  6.  7).  God  is  not  an  unwilling 
friend  or  an  unrighteous  judge  who  will  hear  us  at  last 
just  to  get  rid  of  us.  Jesus'  argument  is  this:  If  such 
men,  evil  or  unwilling,  will  yet  give  in  the  end,  how  much 
more  will  God  hear  us  who  is  our  gracious  Father? 

Jesus  not  only  encouraged  men  to  pray,  and  showed 
them  the  power  of  this  attitude  of  faith,  but  he  showed  them 
what  prayer  was  and  how  to  pray.  He  showed  them  by 
his  example,  which  moved  the  deeply  impressed  disciples 
to  ask  him  to  teach  them  to  pray  (Luke  11.  1-4).  He  showed 
them  the  difference  between  praying  and  making  prayers. 
They  are  not  to  say  prayers,  as  the  Pharisees  do,  who  are 
not  averse  to  being  caught  upon  the  street  corner  when  the 
time  for  prayer  comes,  so  that  men  may  see  how  devout 
they  are.  Prayer  with  him  is  fellowship,  talking  with  God. 
Let  them  go  apart,  therefore,  and  let  their  speech  with  God 
be  simple  and  sincere  (Matt  6.  5-15).  Then  he  gives  what 
we  know  as  the  Lord's  Prayer.  The  spirit  of  Jesus'  re- 
ligion is  nowhere  more  beautifully  or  truly  expressed  than 
in  the  Beatitudes  and  in  this  prayer.  Here  is  the  utter 
devotion  to  God,  his  name,  his  will,  his  kingdom.  Here 
is  the  quiet  and  strength  that  comes  with  perfect  trust. 
There  is  no  clamorous  petition  here.  The  need  of  bread 
and  forgiveness  and  daily  help  is  brought  to  God,  but  only 
that  it  may  be  left  with  him. 

Jesus'  teaching  as  to  prayer  has  often  been  misunder- 
stood. The  words  that  he  used  to  encourage  men  to  pray 
(Mark  11.  22-24)  have  been  taken  as  indicating  a  sort  of 
magical  power  in  prayer,  that  prayers  themselves  must 
bring  certain  results.  And  so  men  have  talked  about  faith 
in  prayer.  But  this  was  just  what  Jesus  protested  against 
in  the  Pharisees.  With  him  it  was  not  faith  in  prayers, 
but  faith  in  God.  Petition  has  its  place  in  prayer,  but  trust 
and  fellowship  are  the  supreme  words.  This  fellowship, 
for  example,  demands  that  we  shall  have  the  forgiving  spirit 
when  we  pray  to  the  forgiving  God  (Matt  6.  12-15).  What 


THE  LIFE  WITH  GOD  89 

the  trust  means  is  shown  us  in  the  example  of  Jesus'  own 
praying  (Luke  22.  42).  Jesus  does  not  say,  "Thy  will 
be  done,"  because  he  cannot  get  what  he  asks,  but  because 
God's  will  is  his  supreme  desire.  It  follows  from  his  trust 
in  God  that  God's  will  is  the  highest  good.  It  is  the  same 
spirit  of  devotion  and  trust  that  breathes  in  the  quiet  words 
of  the  Lord's   Prayer. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND   STUDY 

Make  a  topical  outline  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt  S  to  7). 

Scholars  agree  that  this  is  a  collection  of  sayings  made  by 
Matthew,  brought  together  here  and  arranged  probably  for  pur- 
poses of  use  in  instruction.  Find  the  general  subject,  for  example, 
of  5.  21-48  and  6.   1-18. 

Using  a  synopsis  or  harmony,  note  that  this  material  is  wholly 
lacking  in  Mark,  who  deals  more  in  incidents  and  less  in  teaching. 
Comparing  Matthew  and  Luke,  note  several  instances  in  which 
Luke  seems  to  give  the  correct  historical  setting  for  some  saying 
included  by   Matthew   in   his  collection. 

As  to  the  spirit  of  humility  and  desire,  read  in  addition  Mark 
9-  33-37;   10.  13-16;  Matt  18.   1-6;  Luke  14.   15-24. 

As  to  the  demand  of  decision  and  devotion,  read  Matt  10.  34-39; 
Luke  14.  25-33;   Mark  9.  43-48. 

Read  the  stories  of  the  three  rich  men :  Luke  12.  13-21 ;  16.  19- 
31  ;   Mark  10.   17-27. 

As  to  pra3^er,  read  Mark  11.  22-25;  Luke  11.  5-13;   18.   1-8. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  LIFE  WITH  MEN 


With  Jesus 
religion  and 
morality 
are  one 


All  realize  to-day  that  religion  and  morals  must  go  to- 
gether. It  was  not  so  in  Jesus'  time.  In  the  Roman  world 
religion  was  quite  distinct  from  matters  of  conduct  and  char- 
acter. The  leaders  of  the  Jewish  faith  laid  the  stress 
upon  innumerable  rites  and  rules  which  were  to  be  observed 
for  their  own  sake.  With  Jesus  religion  and  ethics  are 
one.  He  knows  no  such  thing  as  a  religion  which  does  not 
issue  in  ethics,  or  a  morality  that  does  not  spring  from  re- 
ligion. The  oneness  is  apparent  from  three  considerations, 
(i)  It  is  seen  in  the  great  commandment  in  which  Jesus 
sums  up  all  religion :  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God 
with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy 
mind.  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself"  (Matt  22. 
34-40).  Given  in  double  form,  the  commandment  really  is 
one.  The  Pharisees  summed  up  duty  in  six  hundred  and 
thirteen  rules.  Jesus  has  but  one,  and  that  is  not  a  rule 
but  an  inner  spirit.  In  that  spirit  faith  and  service  are  one ; 
it  is  the  same  spirit  whether  turned  toward  God  or  man. 
(2)  Jesus  declares  that  our  love  of  God  must  be  shown 
in  the  service  of  his  brethren,  of  God's  children  (Matt  25. 
31-40),  The  mere  forms  of  religion  had  no  interest  for 
Jesus.  To  be  reconciled  to  one's  brother  comes  before  the 
gift  at  the  altar.  The  Sabbath  was  not  a  form  to  be  kept 
or  a  work  to  be  done  for  God ;  it  was  a  gift  to  man,  and  a 
good  deed  was  the  right  way  of  keeping  it.  It  was  mercy, 
not  sacrifice,  that  God  wanted,  as  the  prophet  had  taught 
long  ago  (Matt  12.  1-8;  Mark  2.  23-28;  3.  1-5).  (3)  The 
heart  of  Jesus'  ethics  comes  from  his  faith.  To  be  a  brother 
sums  up  the  whole  relation  to  men,  but  what  that  means 
we  know   only   as   we  look  to   God.      From  his   spirit   as 

90 


THE  LIFE  WITH  MEN  91 

Father  we  learn  what  we  are  to  be  as  sons,  merciful  as  he 
is  merciful.  And  from  his  Fatherhood  we  learn  that  all 
men  are  our  brothers,  evil  as  well  as  good.  Looking  back 
to-da}-,  we  know  that  there  never  has  been  any  real  and 
full  brotherhood  except  as  there  has  been  this  faith  in  God 
as  Father. 

The  first  principle  in  the  practice  of  brotherhood  is  that   "^^e  law  of 

rsvGrciiCG 

of  reverence,  the  regard  for  humanity  as  sacred.  Here,  as 
at  every  point  in  the  practice  of  brotherhood,  the  ideal 
is  simply  that  men  are  to  be  "sons  of  the  Father  who  is 
in  heaven."  God  values  men,  as  we  have  seen,  and  even 
welcomes  back  those  that  have  been  sinful  (Luke  15). 
Human  life  is  the  one  thing  that  is  worth  more  than  all 
the  world  (Mark  8.  2)^^,  37).  Not  even  the  weakest  and 
meanest  of  human  lives  may  be  injured  with  impunity; 
"Whosoever  shall  cause  one  of  these  little  ones  that  believe 
on  me  to  stumble,  it  were  better  for  him  if  a  great  millstone 
were  hanged  about  his  neck,  and  he  were  cast  into  the  sea" 
(Mark  9.  42).  And  even  the  spirit  of  contempt  shown 
toward  our  fellow  men  brings  down  the  judgment  of  God 
(Matt  5.  21,  22).  Only  gradually  are  we  seeing  the  tre- 
mendous meaning  for  our  social  life  of  this  teaching  of 
Jesus,  which  has  slowly  been  reversing  the  practice  of  the 
ages.  The  protection  of  property  was  the  chief  interest  of 
law  and  government  in  his  day.  Gradually  under  this  prin- 
ciple we  are  making  human  welfare  our  chief  aim. 

The  second  principle  of  brotherhood  is  the  law  of  grace  The  law  of 
and  good  will.  Here  too  it  is  the  spirit  of  the  Father  that  ^od^^ui 
determines  what  the  sons  should  be.  We  are  to  show  the 
forgiving  spirit  to  men  as  he  shows  it  to  us  (Matt  6.  12-15). 
And  it  is  not  to  be  a  grudging  or  limited  forgiveness.  As 
God  forgives  us  freely  and  constantly,  so  we  are  to  forgive, 
not  seven  times,  but  seventy  times  seven.  Jesus  enforces 
this  by  the  parable  of  the  wicked  servant,  who  owed  his 
king  the  enormous  sum  of  ten  millions  of  dollars.  Such  a 
sum  he  could  not  think  of  paying.     According  to  the  cruel 


92  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

law  of  the  time,  it  meant  not  simply  prison  but  slavery  for 
himself  and  family.  Instead  his  lord  remits  the  whole.  The 
servant,  however,  finds  a  man  who  owes  him  a  few  dollars, 
and  throws  his  poor  creditor  into  prison  because  he  cannot 
pay  this.  We  are  to  practice  toward  men  the  mercy  that 
God  shows  to  us  (Matt  i8.  21-35). 

The  strongest  statement  of  this  law  of  grace  and  good 
will  is  found  in  Matt  5.  38-48.  Just  as  Jesus  ruled  out 
legalism  between  God  and  man,  so  here  between  man  and 
his  fellow  men.  He  puts  aside  the  old  give-and-take,  "an 
eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth."  He  stands  for 
justitia,  and  not  jus,  for  righteousness,  and  not  rights. 
Against  the  assertion  of  rights  and  the  use  of  force  to  obtain 
them  Jesus  sets  up  his  new  principle :  unconquerable  good 
will  and  trust  in  the  power  of  love.  It  is  easy  to  mistake 
these  words  by  taking  them  literally,  as  Tolstoy  did.  By 
these  figures  of  speech,  by  drastic  statement,  Jesus  is  trying 
to  contrast  a  new  principle  with  the  old.  As  always,  it 
is  a  spirit  that  he  stands  for,  and  not  a  set  of  rules  that  he 
is  giving.  The  spirit  of  legalism  says,  "I  will  give  what  I 
get."  God  does  not  treat  men  that  way.  He  shows  men 
good,  not  to  repay  what  they  have  earned,  but  because  this 
spirit  of  mercy  is  his  own  nature  and  is  right  in  itself. 
So  we  are  to  show  to  all  men  a  good  will  which  no  evil 
on  their  part  can  overcome :  not  resistance,  not  force  when 
kindness  fails,  but  unfailing  love  all  the  time. 
The  law  of  The  final  law  is  that  of  service  and  sacrifice.    The  com- 

mon rule  with  men  is,  Let  us  get  what  we  can.  Jesus'  rule 
was,  Let  us  give  what  we  can.  He  illustrates  it  from  the 
social  life.  To  Jesus  it  seemed  a  sort  of  profanation  of 
that  hospitality  which  he  himself  was  glad  to  receive  to 
make  it,  as  it  commonly  is,  simply  a  give-and-take  affair. 
"When  thou  makest  a  feast,  bid  the  poor,  the  maimed,  the 
lame,  the  blind:  and  thou  shalt  be  blessed:  because  they 
have  not  wherewith  to  recompense  thee"  (Luke  14.  12-14). 
Such  hospitality  had  in  it  the  real  joy  of  serving  and  giv- 


service  and 
sacrifice 


THE  LIFE  WITH  AIEN  93 

ing.  Such  a  spirit  of  unselfish  service  Jesus  appreciated 
wherever  he  saw  it.  He  rebuked  the  narrow  spirit  of  the 
disciples  who  were  suspicious  of  some  man  who  was  curing 
demoniacs,  but  not  a  member  of  their  company.  The  man 
was  serving  men,  that  was  the  great  matter.  Even  a  cup 
of  cold  water  counted  if  given  in  this  spirit  (Mark  9.  38-41). 

This  unselfish  service  was  no  mere  duty  for  Jesus.  It  Service  as  tiie 
was  a  life,  and  the  only  way  to  achieve  life.  There  are 
several  instances  where  he  set  this  forth.  According  to 
Mark,  there  were  two  occasions  when  the  question  of  posi- 
tion came  up  among  the  disciples.  Once  the  brothers,  James 
and  John,  came  to  him  asking  that  they  might  have  chief 
places  with  him  when  he  should  come  as  King  in  triumph 
(Mark  10.  35-45).  Another  time  the  disciples  quarreled 
among  themselves  (Mark  9.  33-41),  For  them  the  coming 
Kingdom  still  meant  power  and  rule.  "In  my  kingdom," 
says  Jesus,  "the  way  to  reign  is  to  serve.  The  chance  to 
serve  is  the  real  throne  of  life.  That  man  is  first  who 
serves  best." 

The  same  principle  Jesus  set  forth  in  even  more  search-  Losing  and 

•  ,  •  A        1  .....       finding 

mg  manner  on  another  occasion.  At  the  turnmg  pomt  m  his 
career  Jesus  began  telling  his  disciples  that  instead  of  his 
winning  an  earthly  triumph,  his  enemies  were  to  gain  their 
ends,  and  he  must  sufifer  at  their  hands  and  die.  In  an- 
swer to  their  protest  he  gave  them  this  searching  lesson.  To 
try  to  save  your  life  when  duty  brings  danger  or  death  is 
simply  to  lose  it ;  and  to  give  up  your  life  in  daily  service 
or  in  some  supreme  devotion  is  to  find  it.  Against  the 
real  life  thus  found  the  whole  world  cannot  be  weighed  in 
value  (Mark  8.  31-37).  Keeping  is  losing,  spending  is 
gaining:  that  was  Jesus'  law  of  life. 

Most  important  of  all  is  the  fact  that  this  is  the  animat-   Service  and 
ing  principle  of  Jesus'  own  life.     On  the  one  hand  is  the   l^sus'^iife 
spirit  of  service.     That  was  life's  meaning  for  him,  the  op- 
portunity  of   spending   it   for   others.      He   was   a   servant 
(Mark  10.  45).     On  the  other  hand  was  his  confidence  in 


94  NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

the  power  of  love  as  against  all  use  of  force.  He  had  fought 
that  out  in  the  wilderness ;  he  would  not  use  the  kingdoms 
of  this  world.  To  that  principle  he  remained  true.  When 
they  laid  hands  of  force  on  him  at  last,  he  bowed  to  it ; 
he  knew  that  it  was  coming.  He  himself  met  alike  the  love 
of  his  friends  and  the  deed  of  his  enemies  with  love  alone 
in  return.  The  years  since  then  have  shown  which  was 
stronger,  his  weapon  or  that  of  his  foes. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

The  relation  of  religion  and  ethics:  Matt  2.2.  34-40;  12.  1-8; 
Mark  2.   23-28;   3.    1-5. 

The  law  of  reverence:  Mark  8.  36,  2>T,  9-  42;  Matt  5.  21,  22. 

As  to  the  law  of  grace  and  good  will,  read  Matt  6.  12-15 ; 
18.  21-35 ;   5.   38-48. 

As  to  the  law  of  service  and  sacrifice,  read  Luke  14.  12-14;  Mark 
9.  33-41;   10.  35-45;  8.  31-37- 

What  indications  do  you  find  in  history  and  in  modern  social 
and  legislative  reforms  of  the  reverence  for  human  life  which 
Jesus  represents?     Is  this  growing? 

From  concrete  incidents  in  Jesus'  own  life,  show  that  his  actual 
method  was  the  use  of  love  and  good  will  rather  than  force? 
How  was  that  foreshadowed  in  the  temptation  experience? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
FOES  AND  CONFLICTS 

One  of  the  paradoxes  in  Jesus'  life  is  seen  in  the  fact  conflicts 
that,  despite  his  spirit  of  love,  and  his  message  of  good 
will,  his  own  life  was  one  of  conflict,  a  conflict  that  deep- 
ened and  grew  more  bitter  till  it  brought  about  the  end. 
This  conflict  appears  in  different  forms  and  degrees :  there 
is  the  misunderstanding  of  his  family  and  friends ;  there 
is  the  attitude  of  the  Galilsean  populace,  changing  from  early 
enthusiasm  to  later  disappointment  and  indifference ;  and 
there  is  the  early  and  growing  enmity  of  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees.  These  conflicts  bring  the  element  of  change  and 
movement  into  Jesus'  life,  and  at  last  hurry  him  on  to 
his  death. 

The  first  opposition  that  appeared  was  that  of  the  Phari-  The  Phar- 
saic  party.     Mark  shows  this  at  the  very  beginning,  when   conflict  about 
Jesus  healed  a  man  upon  the  Sabbath.     The  conflict  about   ^^^  ^^^ 
the  Sabbath  was  the  most  frequent  cause  of  their  attack. 
Usually  it  was  because  Jesus  followed  the  higher  law  of 
mercy  and  healed  upon  the  Sabbath    (Mark  2.  23-28;  3. 
1-6;  Luke  14.  1-6;  13.  10-17).    They  criticized  him  equally, 
however,  for  failing  to  keep  other  laws.     He  and  his  dis- 
ciples kept  none  of  the  regular  fasts,  nor  did  they  follow 
the  innumerable  rules  about  ceremonial  washings    (Mark 
2.  18-22;  7.  1-5). 

The  study  of  Jesus'  teaching  and  practice  shows  the  real  a  different 
ground  for  these  differences.  It  was  not  simply  personal  reiighfn'°°  °* 
hostility.  It  was  a  wholly  different  conception  of  rehgion 
and  righteousness.  For  Jesus'  opponents  religion  was  a 
sum  of  laws  that  God  had  given,  and  of  rules  or  traditions 
handed  down  by  the  fathers,  which  made  clear  the  ap- 
plication of  the  laws,  and  which  were  almost  more  sacred 

95 


96 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  new 
religion 


The  spirit  of 
Pharisaism 


than  the  laws  themselves.  A  religion  of  life  and  the  spirit 
faced  here  a  religion  of  law  and  tradition.  The  great  teach- 
ings of  the  prophets  about  love  and  mercy  and  justice  had 
not  been  forgotten  by  the  Jews ;  but  the  formal  and  cere- 
monial stood  side  by  side  with  the  ethical  and  spiritual,  and 
in  actual  practice  the  latter  were  lost  in  the  routine  per- 
formance of  the  former. 

Jesus  did  not  begin  an  attack  upon  legalism  and  for- 
malism, but  he  left  them  at  one  side.  He  did  not  fast  or 
observe  the  rules  of  washing,  nor  do  we  hear  that  he  ever 
offered  sacrifice.  He  paid  no  regard  to  ceremonial  purity. 
He  sat  at  table  with  sinners  and  publicans  (Mark  2.  15)  ; 
he  touched  the  leper  (Mark  i.  41)  ;  he  did  not  mind  that  the 
woman  with  the  issue  of  blood  touched  him  (Mark  5.  27, 
34).  His  principles  were  clear.  Religion  for  him  was  (i) 
not  outward  forms  but  an  inner  spirit;  (2)  not  rules  per- 
formed for  God  but  service  wrought  for  men;  and  (3)  the 
oneness  with  the  Father  of  his  children,  who  show  to  God 
reverence  and  trust  and  to  men  his  own  spirit  of  mercy 
and  good  will.  Such  fundamental  difference  had  to  bring 
conflict.  With  it  went  another  fact :  Jesus  was  conscious 
of  bringing  in  a  new  age.  He  came  with  a  message  of  joy, 
a  ministry  of  deliverance  and  gracious  service  (Luke  4. 
18-21).  The  bridegroom  was  here;  why  should  the  sons 
of  the  bridechamber  fast?  The  new  life  was  here;  why 
try  to  press  it  into  the  old  forms  (Mark  2.  18-22)  ?  To  the 
Pharisees  he  was  the  revolutionist,  overturning  the  old  that 
was  sacred.  In  his  own  heart  he  knew  himself  as  the  bringer 
of  a  new  life  and  a  new  day. 

Besides  all  this  was  the  difference  between  his  own  spirit 
and  that  of  the  Jews.  He  calls  the  latter  the  leaven  of  the 
Pharisees  (Luke  12.  i).  In  the  terrible  indictment  of  Matt 
23  he  charges  the  Pharisees  with  being  hypocrites,  religious 
actors.  Religion  meant  to  him  humble  reverence  for  God 
and  loving  good  will  to  men.  He  found  in  them  the  oppo- 
site.   They  were  selfish  at  heart,  desiring  applause  and  pref- 


FOES  AND  CONFLICTS 


97 


erence.  They  did  not  care  for  men.  They  bound  excessive 
burdens  upon  them.  They  put  their  formal  rules  before 
plain  human  obligations,  and  the  very  multitude  of  their 
rules,  which  made  them  so  strict  and  pious,  was  actu- 
ally a  means  to  defeat  the  real  spirit  of  the  law  (Mark  7. 
8-23).  Finally  he  charged  them  with  willful  spiritual  blind- 
ness (Matt  12.  2,2-}^']').  He  had  been  casting  out  demons. 
They  declared  that  he  was  in  league  with  Satan,  and  that 
was  the  reason  Satan's  angels  obeyed  him.  He  saw  in 
the  charge  simply  their  willful  refusal  to  see  the  truth. 
He  charged  them  with  the  sin  of  sins,  the  sin  against  the 
Holy  Spirit.  It  was  not  their  rejection  of  him.  It  was  the 
fact  that  they  saw  the  light  and  called  it  darkness.  They 
were  sinning  against  the  Spirit  of  God  who  was  speaking  to 
them.  The  man  who  thus  willfully  perverts  his  conscience 
shuts  the  only  door  by  which  God  gets  in.  That  was  what 
he  meant  when  he  spoke  of  the  evil  eye  and  the  darkened 
life  (Matt  6.  22,  23). 

In  the  same  chapter  follows  another  charge  which  Jesus  The  sin  of  the 
sets  forth  in  the  striking  parable  of  the  empty  room  (Matt  empty  room 
12.  38-45).  They  had  been  asking  for  signs.  He  refused 
them.  It  was  not  light  that  they  needed,  but  obedience. 
They  were  like  the  man  who  had  been  set  free  from  an 
unclean  spirit,  who  tried  to  keep  his  soul  clean  and  fair 
and  well  ordered,  but  who  would  let  nothing  in.  The  last 
state  of  that  man  was  a  life  of  evil  far  worse  than  the  first. 
These  men  were  not  guilty  of  the  common  vices.  They 
prided  themselves  upon  the  order  of  their  life ;  but  their 
souls  were  empty,  and  when  he  came  with  the  truth  of  God 
and  the  call  to  devote  their  lives,  they  shut  the  door.  The 
fair  outside  did  not  deceive  him.  They  were  like  the  fresh 
whitewashed  graves,  seeming  without,  full  of  corruption 
within. 

These  were  not  the  only  conflicts  in  Jesus'  life.     He  had  The  conflict 
to  face  as  well  the  misunderstanding  and  opposition  of  his   and  family 
friends  and  neighbors,  and  even  his  own  family.     At  one 


98 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Jesus 
demands 
supreme 
allegiance 


time  his  friends  tried  to  carry  him  off,  declaring  that  he 
was  beside  himself  (Mark  3.  20,  21).  He  had  not  begmi 
his  ministry  at  Nazareth,  and  when  he  went  back  at  length 
the  fame  of  his  preaching  and  healing  had  preceded  him. 
His  fellow  villagers  listened  to  him  with  wonder,  but  he 
read  their  unexpressed  thought:  Show  us  some  of  these 
wonders  that  we  have  heard  of  from  Capernaum.  Their 
proverb,  "Physician,  heal  thyself,"  he  answered  with  an- 
other, "No  prophet  is  acceptable  in  his  own  country."  "And 
they  rose  up  and  cast  him  forth  out  of  the  city"  (Luke  4.  16- 
30).  Still  harder  was  the  break  with  his  own  family,  which 
may  have  occurred  before  the  Nazareth  incident.  It  was 
reported  to  him  while  he  was  preaching  that  his  mother 
and  brothers  were  without  the  house  and  had  sent  for  him. 
But  there  was  a  tie  even  deeper  than  that  which  bound  him 
to  mother  and  brothers.  It  was  the  tie  of  loyalty  to  the 
work  for  his  brother  men  in  the  kingdom  of  God.  In  answer 
he  looked  around  at  the  gathered  company  in  the  house  and 
said,  "Behold,  my  mother  and  my  brethren !  For  whosoever 
shall  do  the  will  of  God,  the  same  is  my  brother,  and  sister, 
and  mother"   (Mark  3.  31-35). 

These  experiences  evidently  lie  back  of  the  words  of 
Jesus  reported  by  Matthew  as  given  in  connection  with  the 
sending  out  of  the  twelve  disciples  on  an  independent  mis- 
sionary tour  of  their  own  (Matt  10).  Matthew  has  prob- 
ably brought  together  here,  after  his  custom,  sayings  spoken 
on  various  occasions,  but  bearing  upon  one  theme — the  work 
of  the  Christian  apostle.  Such  words  may  well  have  been 
used  by  the  church  in  later  years  as  an  address  of  ordina- 
tion or  commission,  when  apostles  or  missionaries  were  sent 
forth,  and  they  have  probably  undergone  some  changes  in 
this  usage.  But  the  message  itself  seems  to  come  from 
Jesus' own  experience.  His  call  was  to  a  supreme  allegiance : 
"He  that  doth  not  take  his  cross  and  follow  after  me  is  not 
worthy  of  me."  Such  loyalty  might  mean  the  breaking  of  all 
other  ties.    That  had  been  his  own  lot:  "I  came  not  to  send 


FOES  AND  CONFLICTS  99 

peace,  but  a  sword."  "I  came  to  set  a  man  at  variance 
with  his  father,  and  the  daughter  against  her  mother,  and 
the  daughter-in-law  against  her  mother-in-law."  They  must 
not  hesitate  to  share  what  he  had  borne:  "A  disciple  is  not 
above  his  teacher,  nor  a  servant  above  his  lord."  But  they 
were  to  share  his  faith  and  courage  also:  "Fear  them  not 
therefore.  Be  not  afraid  of  them  that  kill  the  body,  but 
are  not  able  to  kill  the  soul.  The  very  hairs  of  your  head 
are  numbered."  This  chapter  may  be  joined  with  the  story 
of  the  temptation  as  a  bit  of  the  autobiography  of  Jesus :  the 
wandering  life,  here  received,  there  rejected,  with  no  sure 
place  for  shelter ;  the  bitter  experience  of  malice  and  hatred 
from  men  and  misunderstanding  even  from  nearest  kindred ; 
the  courage  to  speak  every  hidden  word,  and  the  assurance 
that  his  life  was  in  his  Father's  hand  who  marked  his 
every  step. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

As  to  the  attack  upon  Jesus,  read  Mark  2.  23-28;  3.  1-6;  Luke 
14.  1-6;  13.  10-17.  State  the  charges  against  Jesus  as  you  think 
the  Pharisees  might  have   framed  them  from  their  standpoint. 

As  to  Jesus'  criticism  of  the  Pharisees,  Mark  7.  8-23 ;  Matt. 
12.  22-45. 

Read  Mark  3.  20,  21,  31-35;   Luke  4.    16-30;   Matt   10. 


CHAPTER  XV 


The  inner 
circle  of 
friends 


Jesus' 
desire  for 
fellowship 


JESUS  AND  HIS  FRIENDS 

One  of  the  outstanding  features  in  Jesus'  life  is  the 
group  of  his  friends  and  disciples.  At  the  very  beginning 
of  his  ministry  we  find  these  figures.  According  to  the 
first  chapter  of  John,  Jesus  meets  his  first  disciples  in  the 
following  of  the  Baptist.  It  is  to  the  home  of  one  of  these, 
Simon,  that  he  goes  when  he  returns  to  Galilee  to  begin 
his  ministry,  and  here  he  invites  Simon  and  his  brother 
Andrew,  together  with  the  other  two  brothers,  James  and 
John,  to  join  his  circle  (Mark  i.  16-20).  A  little  later  a 
publican,  Levi,  is  added  to  the  number,  who  is  probably 
the  Matthew  of  Matt  9.  9  and  10.  3.  From  this  time  on 
we  find  Jesus  always  with  a  circle  of  followers.  They  are 
with  him  when  the  crowds  follow  him  in  Galilee.  They 
accompany  him  on  his  journeys  outside  the  province.  They 
are  the  companions  in  the  quiet  days,  and,  though  they 
protest  against  his  going,  they  follow  him  to  Jerusalem. 

What  was  the  meaning  of  this  special  circle  ?  It  marked, 
for  one  thing,  the  friendly,  deeply  human  nature  of  Jesus. 
There  was  in  him  not  only  a  general  love  for  humankind 
and  a  compassion  for  the  needy,  but  this  special  capacity 
for  friendship  and  the  desire  for  it.  "Ye  are  they  that  have 
continued  with  me  in  my  temptations,"  he  says  (Luke  22. 
28).  At  the  Last  Supper  together  he  says,  "With  desire  I 
have  desired  to  eat  this  passover  with  you  before  I  suffer" 
(Luke  22.  15).  At  special  moments  in  his  life  he  takes 
with  him  the  three  who  stood  nearer  to  him  apparently  than 
the  others — Peter  and  James  and  John  (Mark  5.  37;  9.  2; 
14.  33)  ;  and  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane  he  misses  the 
watchful  sympathy  which  he  craved  in  that  hour  of  need 
(Mark  14.  37). 

100 


JESUS  AND  HIS  FRIENDS  lOi 

Deeper  than  this  personal  question  was  the  purpose  con-  The  purpose 
cerned  with  his  work.  Mark  puts  very  simply  this  double  °^J^l^°''^^ 
purpose:  "He  appointed  twelve,  that  they  might  be  with 
him,  and  that  he  might  send  them  forth  to  preach"  (Mark 
3.  14).  The  stress  of  Jesus'  work  was  upon  his  teaching. 
He  must  teach  men  the  nature  of  the  Kingdom,  and  what 
the  life  of  the  Kingdom  was,  and  how  to  make  ready  for  its 
coming.  The  changing  throngs  could  not  give  him  the 
best  opportunity  for  such  work.  He  must  have  men  who 
could  stay  with  him,  whom  he  could  lead  by  constant  patient 
tuition  not  only  into  an  understanding  of  his  message  but 
into  a  sharing  of  his  spirit,  into  the  life  that  he  himself  lived 
with  God.  They  were  to  take  his  yoke  upon  them  and  learn 
of  him  (Matt  ii.  29).  That  is  the  reason  for  their  name, 
disciples  or  learners. 

The  second  purpose  was  to  train  these  men  for  work —  The  training 
"that  he  might  send  them  forth  to  preach."  There  was  at 
least  one  occasion  upon  which  Jesus  thus  sent  them  forth. 
Matthew  and  Luke  report  this  with  extended  statements 
of  the  instructions  that  Jesus  gave  (Matt  10.  1-42;  Luke  10. 
1-20).  As  the  statements  agree  in  other  respects,  it  may 
very  well  be  that  they  refer  to  the  same  occasion,  though 
Matthew  speaks  of  twelve  and  Luke  of  seventy.  How  far 
beyond  Jesus  looked  in  this  purpose  we  do  not  know.  So 
much  is  clear,  that  in  the  early  church  this  inner  circle  was 
regarded  first  of  all  as  preachers,  as  those  sent  forth  to 
proclaim  the  message. 

It  is  this  double  purpose  of  Jesus  that  explains  the  demand  The  demand 
that  he  made  upon  these  disciples.  It  is  not  always  clear 
in  any  given  passage  whether  Jesus  is  speaking  of  what 
is  required  of  all  who  would  enter  the  Kingdom,  or  simply 
of  what  he  asks  of  those  who  were  to  go  with  him.  When 
he  asks  the  rich  young  ruler  to  sell  all  his  possessions  and 
give  them  to  the  poor,  it  is  because  he  wanted  him  to  be- 
come one  of  his  companions  (Mark  10.  21).  Upon  the 
men  of  this  inner  circle  he  made  a  special  demand.     They 


I02 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


How  the 
inner  circle 
was  formed 


The  training 
and  its  fruit 


must  leave  their  homes  and  their  business  and  follow  him 
(Mark  i.  17.  18;  10.  28-30).  They  must  be  men  of  single 
and  unswerving  devotion  (Luke  9.  57-62).  They  are  to  go 
forth  teaching  and  healing,  like  their  Master,  taking  no 
provision  and  trusting  to  hospitality  where  they  go.  They 
must  be  pure  men  and  fearless,  ready  to  sufifer,  and  yet 
with  faith  that  they  are  in  their  heavenly  Father's  care. 
And  they  must  stand  ready  to  sever  any  tie  or  face  any 
foe  as  this  loyalty  may  demand. 

The  inner  circle  was  not  composed  simply  of  those  who 
came  of  their  own  accord.  They  were  chosen  by  Jesus. 
In  some  cases  men  asked  to  be  enrolled,  like  the  scribe 
(Matt  8.  19),  and  the  Gadarene  demoniac  whom  Jesus 
healed  (Mark  5.  18,  19).  Not  all  were  accepted,  for  Jesus 
sent  the  latter  home.  They  were  probably  all  Galilaeans  ex- 
cept Judas.  We  know,  however,  little  of  the  circumstances 
of  any  of  them  except  the  first  five  named  above.  The 
limited  group  of  the  twelve  was  probably  not  fixed  at  the 
very  first.  But  even  after  the  selection  of  the  twelve  there 
was  both  a  smaller  and  a  larger  group.  The  smaller  group 
that  was  especially  dear  to  Jesus  was  composed  of  Peter, 
James,  and  John.  In  the  larger  group  there  were  men  be- 
sides the  twelve.  Aside  from  the  reference  in  Luke  10.  i, 
we  read  in  Acts  i.  21  of  others  that  were  in  the  company 
of  Jesus.  There  were  certain  women  also  who  were  mem- 
bers of  the  company  for  at  least  a  part  of  the  time — Mary 
Magdalene,  Joanna  the  wife  of  Chuzas,  Susanna,  and  others, 
who  assisted  also  in  meeting  the  expenses  of  the  traveling 
group  (Luke  8.  1-3).  Some  of  the  women  followed  him 
later  to  Jerusalem  and  we  find  them  present  at  his  death 
(Mark  15.  40,  41). 

The  Galilsean  ministry  showed  less  and  less  promise  of 
permanent  fruit,  and  Jesus  turned  more  and  more  to  the 
training  of  the  inner  circle.  The  final  issue  justified  his 
plan.  It  was  not  an  easy  task.  He  had  to  lament  their 
hardness  of  heart,  their  slowness  to  see  the  real  spirit  of 


JESUS  AND  HIS  FRIENDS  103 

his  work,  his  real  aim.  But  in  the  end  he  won.  Only  one 
of  the  number  failed  him.  Even  the  shock  of  his  death 
could  not  overthrow  their  conviction.  After  the  first  few 
days  we  find  them  rallying  the  other  disciples  and  stand- 
ing forth  before  the  people  who  had  put  Jesus  to  death 
as  a  malefactor,  declaring  their  faith  in  him  as  the  promised 
Messiah.  We  try  in  vain  to  imagine  what  those  weeks  and 
months  meant  during  which  Jesus  gave  himself  to  this  little 
group.  There  were  long  days  when  they  traveled  together 
or  remained  in  quiet  retirement,  when  he  poured  forth 
for  their  ears  alone  the  wealth  of  his  teaching.  More  im- 
portant still  must  have  been  the  deepening  impress  of  his 
personality,  his  tenderness  and  sympathy,  his  courage  in 
face  of  every  danger  and  disappointment,  his  simple  steady 
faith  in  God,  his  deep  sense  of  the  Father's  presence  and 
his  fellowship  with  the  Father.  There  is  one  fact  that  shows 
as  no  other  what  the  power  of  his  person  must  have  been: 
These  men  who  walked  and  talked  and  ate  and  slept  with 
him  in  that  simple  human  fellowship  were  the  ones  who 
declared  when  he  was  gone  that  he  was  Master  and  Lord 
and  King. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Read  Matt  10.  1-42  and  Luke  10.  1-20.  On  this  basis  state  (1) 
what  the  work  of  the  disciples  was  to  be  as  they  went  out;  (2) 
what  qualities  of  character  he  demanded  of  them. 

Make  a  list  of  the  friends  of  Jesus  outside  of  these  immediate 
disciples,  and  mention  any  homes  where  he  was  wont  to  be  en- 
tertained. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
TURNING  POINTS 


Early 
popularity 


Opposition 
from  Phar- 
isees and 
Herodians 


We  can  now  see  the  rough  outline  of  the  course  of  events 
in  Jesus'  ministry.  The  period  of  popularity  came  first,  the 
time  when  the  crowds  thronged  about  him  wherever  he 
went,  following  him  out  even  to  desert  places.  The  quickly 
spreading  reports  brought  the  people  not  only  from  thickly 
settled  Galilee,  but  from  Judaea  to  the  south  and  beyond 
Jordan  to  the  east  and  the  districts  about  Tyre  and  Sidon 
to  the  north  (Mark  3.  7,  8).  There  were  various  reasons 
for  this.  John  the  Baptist  had  already  stirred  the  people 
and  they  were  ready  to  listen.  Many  were  moved  without 
doubt  by  Jesus'  message.  But  there  were  less  creditable 
reasons  too.  They  hailed  him  as  a  healer  and  worker  of 
signs. 

Side  by  side  with  this  popularity  there  were  from  the 
beginning  misunderstanding  and  criticism  and  opposition. 
The  opposition  came  from  the  Pharisaic  party,  headed  by 
their  professional  teachers,  the  scribes.  On  the  part  of  the 
latter  there  was  jealousy,  on  the  part  of  both  the  opposition 
to  a  religion  that  was  directly  opposed  to  the  authority  of 
law  and  tradition  for  which  they  stood.  Meanwhile  Jesus 
realized  how  little  real  understanding  the  people  showed. 
Even  his  family  and  friends  looked  upon  him  as  one  beside 
himself.  He  confounded  the  Pharisees  at  first,  but  they 
persisted  in  the  attack.  They  charged  him  with  being  in 
league  with  the  devil.  Leaders  from  Jerusalem  came  down 
to  watch  him,  perhaps  sent  by  the  Sanhedrin  (Mark  7.  i). 
These  accused  him  of  violating  the  rules  of  their  religion 
and  so  sought  to  stir  up  the  people  against  him.  And  finally 
opposition  came  from  another  quarter.  The  Jewish  lead- 
ers got  in  touch  with  adherents  of  Herod   (Mark  3.  6). 

104 


TURNING  POINTS 


105 


Desertion  by 
the  people 


Herod  had  put  John  to  death,  why  should  he  not  lay  hold 
of  this  new  disturber?  He  himself  had  begun  to  ask  about 
Jesus,  and  to  wonder  superstitiously  whether  this  were  not 
John  come  to  life  again. 

Meanwhile  the  tide  was  turning  with  the  people.  The 
opposition  of  the  leaders  was  taking  effect.  Jesus  had  re- 
fused to  listen  to  their  clamor  for  signs  or  let  himself  become 
a  mere  healer.  Some  perception  of  his  real  message  must 
have  come  to  them ;  it  was  not  what  they  wanted  to  hear. 
The  fourth  Gospel  preserves  a  tradition  of  how  the  crisis 
came.  Together  with  the  first  three  Gospels,  it  tells  the 
story  of  how  Jesus  fed  the  multitude,  moved  by  pity  for 
the  crowds  that  had  gathered,  hungry  and  far  from  home. 
Such  a  deed  stirred  them  with  enthusiasm  and  they  wanted 
to  make  him  king  (John  6.  15).  It  showed  how  little  his 
teaching  had  accomplished,  how  hopeless  the  task  was  of 
doing  anything  with  the  populace.  What  John  states  the 
other  Gospels  imply.  Matthew  and  Luke  give  his  lament 
over  Capernaum,  Bethsaida,  and  Chorazin.  These  had  been 
the  center  of  his  work.  Here  he  had  done  his  preaching 
and  healing.  But  the  repentance  that  he  had  looked  for 
had  not  come.  "Woe  unto  thee,  Chorazin !  woe  unto  thee, 
Bethsaida !  for  if  the  mighty  works  had  been  done  in 
Tyre  and  Sidon  which  were  done  in  you,  they  would  have 
repented  long  ago  in  sackcloth  and  ashes"  (Matt  11.  20-24; 
compare  Luke  10.  13-15). 

And  so  there  came  the  first  turning  point  in  Jesus'  plan  Decision  to 
of  work.  He  decided  to  leave  Galilee.  On  the  one  hand 
was  the  failure  of  his  appeal  to  the  people.  On  the  other, 
the  danger  that  threatened  from  Herod.  The  leaders  of 
church  and  state  were  both  lying  in  wait  for  him.  How  he 
regarded  the  latter  is  shown  by  a  passage  which  Luke  has 
preserved,  though  he  assigns  it  to  a  later  time  (Luke  13. 
3i'33)-  Some  Pharisees  had  told  him  of  die  danger  from 
Herod.  His  answer  was:  "Go  and  say  to  that  fox,  Behold 
I  cast  out  demons  and  perform  cures  to-day  and  to-mor- 


leave  Galilee 


io6 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  faithful 
circle 


Did  Jesus 
turn  to  the 
Gentiles? 


row,  and  the  third  day  I  am  perfected.  Nevertheless  I  must 
go  on  my  way  to-day  and  to-morrow  and  the  day  follow- 
ing." It  was  not  a  counsel  of  fear  that  moved  him  to  leave 
Galilee,  His  life  was  in  God's  care  who  had  planned  its 
"to-day  and  to-morrow  and  the  day  following."  But  neither 
would  he  be  reckless  of  danger  and  tempt  God   (Matt  4. 

5-7). 

But  while  he  had  not  moved  the  people  to  repentance 
or  won  them  to  his  message,  his  ministry  had  not  been  a 
failure.  Side  by  side  with  his  denunciation  of  the  cities 
there  is  his  thanksgiving  for  those  who  had  seen  and  be- 
lieved: "I  thank  thee,  O  Father,  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth, 
that  thou  didst  hide  these  things  from  the  wise  and  under- 
standing, and  didst  reveal  them  unto  babes"  (Matt  11.  25). 
During  these  days  Jesus  had  gathered  around  him  the  circle 
of  disciples,  and  these  now  went  with  him  on  his  journey. 
Here  was  his  work  for  the  next  weeks,  to  use  the  quiet  of 
the  days  thus  spent  together  for  the  instruction  and  training 
of  these  men  upon  whom  so  much  was  to  depend. 

The  course  of  their  wandering,  according  to  Mark,  was 
northward  from  Galilee  through  the  regions  about  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  then  southward  again  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  down 
to  Decapolis,  probably  passing  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake. 
This  journey  into  Gentile  lands  raises  the  question  of  Jesus' 
relations  to  those  outside  of  Israel.  Was  this  another  turn- 
ing point  from  Israel  to  the  Gentiles  ?  The  one  incident  that 
we  have  from  Jesus'  stay  in  the  region  of  Tyre  and  Sidon 
points  the  other  way  (Mark  7.  24-30;  Matt  15.  21-28). 
Jesus  had  entered  a  house  and  did  not  wish  his  presence 
known.  His  fame  had  reached  these  parts,  however,  as 
appears  from  the  statement  that  among  the  crowds  in  Gali- 
lee there  had  been  visitors  from  these  districts  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon.  And  so  a  woman,  a  Gentile,  who  heard  of  his 
presence,  searched  him  out  and  implored  his  help  for  her 
daughter.  According  to  Matthew's  report,  Jesus  at  first 
was  silent,  and  then   in  answer  to  her  persistence  said : 


TURNING  POINTS  107 

"I  was  not  sent  but  unto  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of 
Israel.  But  she  came  and  worshiped  him,  saying,  Lord, 
help  me.  And  he  answered  and  said,  It  is  not  meet  to  take 
the  children's  bread  and  cast  it  to  the  dogs.  But  she  said. 
Yes,  Lord :  for  even  the  dogs  eat  of  the  crumbs  which  fall 
from  their  master's  table."  The  harshness  of  Jesus'  answer 
is  more  apparent  than  real.  The  term  he  used  for  the 
Gentiles  was  not  the  opprobrious  epithet,  "dogs,"  but  the 
diminutive,  "little  dogs" — a  rather  playful  term.  But  though 
he  yielded  to  the  woman  and  praised  her  faith,  yet  there 
remains  his  first  unwillingness,  so  unlike  his  usual  attitude, 
and  his  statement  that  he  was  sent  only  to  the  Israelites. 

How  did  Jesus  conceive  his  relation  to  those  outside  of  Jesus'  work 
Israel?  Did  he  proclaim  a  kingdom  that  was  only  for  ^raeT* 
Israel?  We  must  discriminate  in  our  answer.  Jesus  felt 
that  his  own  mission  was  to  Israel,  and  when  he  sent  the 
twelve  out  upon  their  special  mission  he  limited  them  in 
the  same  way:  "Go  not  into  any  way  of  the  Gentiles,  and 
enter  not  into  any  city  of  the  Samaritans"  (Matt  10.  5,  6). 
Just  what  Jesus'  reason  for  this  was  we  cannot  say  with 
certainty.  It  may  have  been  a  limitation  of  territory,  that 
he  did  not  wish  to  work  outside  of  the  bounds  he  had  set. 
He  did  not  refuse  to  help  Gentiles  as  such,  for  he  had 
already  healed  the  centurion's  servant  (Matt  8.  5-13),  and 
the  Samaritan  leper  was  cleansed  as  freely  as  the  others 
(Luke  17.  11-19),  There  may  have  been  the  conviction  that 
Israel,  the  people  of  the  law  and  of  special  privilege,  must 
first  be  called  to  repentance.  How  could  he  expect  a  re- 
sponse from  the  Gentiles,  when  Israel  did  not  answer  to  his 
message  ? 

One  thing  is  clear — there  was  no  national  limitation  in  HisKingd 
Jesus'  thought  of  the  Kingdom.     John  had  declared  that  "°''«^^*i 
membership  in  Israel  was  not  enough  (Matt  3.  8,  9).    Jesus 
approved  and  went  farther.     He  promises  deliverance  not 
from  the  empire  of  Rome  but  from  the  kingdom  of  evil. 
And  the  Kingdom  is  to  belong  not  to  Jews  or  to  Greeks, 


om 


io8  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

but  to  the  poor  in  spirit,  the  meek,  the  merciful,  the  pure 
in  heart  (Matt  5.  3-9).  Moreover,  it  is  the  idea  of  God 
that  rules  Jesus'  thinking-  and  not  that  of  the  Kingdom.  And 
God  is  not  the  Lord  of  Israel,  but  the  Father  of  all  men. 
Neither  in  the  nature  of  God  nor  in  Jesus'  conception  of 
religion  is  there  anything  national  or  limited.  His  religion 
is  universal. 

Whatever  the  reason  for  limiting  his  work  to  Israel, 
Jesus'  own  attitude  was  not  limited  in  its  sympathies. 
He  rejoiced  over  the  faith  of  the  pagan  centurion  and 
the  Syrophoenician  woman,  and  over  the  Samaritan  leper 
that  came  back  to  speak  his  gratitude  (Luke  7.  i-io;  17. 
11-19).  His  own  experience  showed  him  Israel's  refusal 
and  the  open  hearts  outside  his  people.  He  condemned 
the  Jews  with  examples  taken  from  the  Gentiles,  Nineveh 
and  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  Naaman  and  the  widow  of 
Sarepta,  and  the  Samaritan  who  proved  the  neighbor  to 
the  man  that  fell  among  thieves  (Matt  12.  41,  42;  Luke  4. 
25-27;  Luke  10.  30-35).  For  the  most  part  the  examples 
come  in  the  latter  part  of  his  ministry,  when  his  heart  was 
moved  alike  by  the  response  that  he  found  among  individual 
Gentiles  and  Samaritans  whom  he  touched,  and  by  the  un- 
responsiveness of  Israel.  It  is  in  the  last  Jerusalem  days 
that  he  speaks  of  the  temple  as  "a.  house  of  prayer  for  all 
the  nations,"  and  declares  in  the  parable  of  the  vineyard, 
"The  kingdom  of  God  shall  be  taken  away  from  you,  and 
shall  be  given  to  a  nation  bringing  forth  the  fruits  thereof" 
(Mark  11.  17;  Matt  21.  43).  Even  before  this  he  had 
said,  when  praising  the  centurion's  faith,  "Many  shall  come 
from  the  east  and  the  west,  and  shall  sit  down  with  Abra- 
ham, and  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven ;  but 
the  sons  of  the  kingdom  shall  be  cast  forth  into  the  outer 
darkness"  (Matt  8.  11,  12).  The  great  commission,  there- 
fore, which  Matthew  reports  as  being  given  by  the  risen 
Christ,  is  in  harmony  with  Jesus'  principles:  "Go  ye  there- 
fore, and  make  disciples  of  all  the  nations"  (Matt  28.  19). 


TURNING  POINTS 


109 


The  second  turning  point  in  Jesus'  work  that  fell  within 
these  days  came  at  Caesarea  PhiHppi  (Mark  8.  27-38).  It 
marked,  not  a  change  in  his  plans,  but  a  stage  in  their 
progress.  It  probably  fell  within  the  later  days  of  this 
period  of  wandering.  Jesus  had  turned  back  again  after 
having  come  south  to  Decapolis,  and  had  led  his  company 
far  to  the  north,  where  lay  the  city  of  Czesarea  Philippi 
among  the  headwaters  of  the  Jordan.  Here  came  perhaps 
the  greatest  hour  in  Jesus'  ministry.  The  cities  of  Galilee 
had  not  turned  at  his  preaching.  The  established  forces  of 
his  native  land  were  against  him,  Pharisees  on  the  one  hand, 
Herodians  on  the  other.  His  life  was  in  danger.  He  must 
have  been  considering  before  this  the  road  to  Jerusalem 
and  what  it  would  mean  for  him.  He  had  turned  from 
other  work  to  give  himself  to  these  men.  He  had  asserted 
no  claims.  He  had  lived  with  them  and  taught  them  and 
loved  them.  Did  they  understand  him?  What  did  they 
think  of  him?  Would  they  be  true  to  him?  It  was  one 
thing  to  call  him  Master  at  the  height  of  his  popu- 
larity. What  would  they  say  about  the  fugitive  and  wan- 
derer? 

Here  at  last  he  puts  them  to  the  test.  "Who  do  men  say 
that  I  am?  And  they  told  him,  saying,  John  the  Baptist; 
and  others,  Elijah;  but  others,  One  of  the  prophets.  And 
he  asked  them,  But  who  say  ye  that  I  am  ?  Peter  answereth 
and  saith  unto  him.  Thou  art  the  Christ."  It  was  no 
allegiance  of  lips  that  Jesus  wanted.  It  was  no  personal 
honor  that  he  craved.  Christ  means  Messiah,  Anointed 
One,  but  it  was  not  this  title  that  he  wished.  He  had 
brought  them  to  see  that  the  hope  of  Israel  lay  in  him,  in 
what  he  was  and  what  he  stood  for.  They  had  much  yet 
to  learn,  but  he  had  bound  them  to  himself;  and  they  had 
made  the  confession  not  in  some  hour  of  triumph  when  the 
multitudes  wondered  at  his  healings,  but  here  in  his  hour 
of  loneliness  and  reversal.  It  was  the  moral  and  spiritual 
power  of  his  own  person  which  had  wrought  this. 


The  crisis 
at  Caesarea 
Philippi 


The 
confession 


no 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  meaning 
of  the 
confession 


The  first 
proclamation 


It  is  not  easy  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  this 
scene  which  Mark  has  given  us  so  simply.  It  has  been 
called  the  hour  of  Christianity's  birth.  The  Christian  reli- 
gion has  always  been  more  than  a  sum  of  teachings  coming 
from  its  founder,  or  an  ideal  of  life  set  forth  by  him.  He 
himself  has  been  the  center,  as  one  in  whom  men  put  their 
trust,  upon  whom  they  built  their  hopes.  It  was  the  first 
Christian  confession.  It  was,  indeed,  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian   Church. 

The  story  of  Csesarea  Philippi  makes  certain  one  other 
fact — that  Jesus  had  not  previously  proclaimed  himself  as 
Messiah  or  allowed  himself  thus  to  be  proclaimed.  Our 
Gospels  here  state  explicitly :  "Then  charged  he  the  dis- 
ciples that  they  should  tell  no  man  that  he  was  the  Christ" 
(Matt  i6.  20).  Later  he  publicly  proclaimed  himself  as 
Messiah  by  the  mode  of  his  entrance  into  Jerusalem ;  but 
that  was  at  the  close.  It  is  true  that  there  are  earlier 
references  to  the  Messiahship  on  the  lips  of  Jesus  or  accepted 
by  him  from  others ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
Gospels  were  written  not  to  give  the  record  of  Jesus'  life  in 
chronological  order,  but  to  set  him  forth  as  Messiah  and 
Saviour,  that  men  might  believe  on  him.  It  was  natural, 
therefore,  that  the  writers  should  use  these  terms  in  the 
earlier  as  well  as  latter  part  of  his  ministry,  just  as  we  find 
them  indifferent  to  the  order  of  time  in  arranging  their 
materials,  whether  of  works  or  teaching. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND   STUDY 

Read  John  6.  Note  the  difference  in  the  style  of  Jesus'  speech 
as  reported  here,  and  the  difference  in  circumstances  and  form  of 
Peter's  confession.  Note,  however,  the  similar  outline  of  events, 
giving  in  order  Jesus'  popularity,  his  withdrawal  for  a  time,  the 
falling  away,  and  the  confession  of  Peter. 

The  woes  over  the  cities:  read  Matt  11.  20-25;  Luke  10.  13-1S, 
21.  Note  that  these  cities  have  not  only  been  reduced  to  ruins,  but 
that  even  their  site  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute. 

As  to  Jesus'  wanderings,  read  Mark  7.  24-31 ;  Matt  15.  21-28. 


TURNING  POINTS  in 

As  to  Jesus  and  the  Gentiles,  read  Matt  8.  5-13;  Luke  17.  11-19; 

Matt  12.  41,  42;  Luke  4.  25-27;   10.  30-35. 

As  to  the  confession  at  Csesarea  Philippi,  read  Mark  8.  27-38; 
Matt  16.   13-20. 

Read  the  story  of  the  feeding  of  the  multitudes  given  in  Mark 
8.  1-9.  Compare  with  that  of  Mark  6.  30-44.  Note  points  of 
resemblance  and  contrast.  Some  scholars  consider  these  stories 
doublets,  describing  the  same  event  with  such  changes  as  might 
easily  come  from  oral  tradition.  Give  reasons  for  or  against  this 
view.  Would  the  disciples  have  asked  the  question  of  Mark  8.  4 
if  the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  had  occurred  but  a  little  while 
before? 


CHAPTER  XVII 


The  third 
turning  point 


Why  Jesus 
turned  to 
Jerusalem 


Jesus  true  to 
his  principles 


FACING  JERUSALEM 

Two  events  were  noted  in  the  last  chapter  that  formed 
turning  points  in  Jesus'  work — his  turning  from  GaHlee  and 
his  acceptance  of  the  title  of  Messiah.  To  these  there  is 
now  joined  a  third:  Jesus  decides  to  go  to  Jerusalem  and 
foretells  his  suffering  and  death.  "He  began  to  teach  them, 
that  the  Son  of  man  must  suffer  many  things,  and  be  rejected 
by  the  elders,  and  the  chief  priests,  and  the  scribes,  and  be 
killed,  and  after  three  days  rise  again.  And  he  spake  the 
saying  openly"  (Mark  8.  31,  32). 

We  do  not  know  when  Jesus  formed  this  resolution  to 
go  to  Jerusalem.  He  saw  it  apparently  as  the  will  of  his 
Father,  which  he  read  in  the  course  that  his  life  had  taken. 
Other  doors  were  closed  to  him.  In  Galilee,  where  his 
work  had  begun  with  such  promise,  there  were  now  the 
conspiring  Pharisees  and  Herodians,  and  a  people  that  had 
turned  from  him.  To  go  to  Gentile  lands  was  to  give  up 
his  mission.  Only  the  way  to  Jerusalem  was  open.  There 
he  would  make  the  last  appeal  to  his  people.  The  issue  of 
that  appeal,  however,  he  clearly  foresaw,  and  for  that  he 
had  to  prepare  his  disciples.  The  spirit  that  had  opposed 
him  in  Galilee  was  far  stronger  in  the  city.  He  had  met 
its  emissaries,  who  had  come  down  to  censure  and  oppose 
(Mark  7.  i).  With  them  he  would  find  the  priestly  party, 
with  whom  he  had  as  little  in  common  as  with  the  Pharisees. 
He  knew  that  his  journey  meant  death. 

The  journey,  though  perhaps  a  change  in  his  plans,  was 
not  a  change  in  his  spirit  or  method.  Here,  again,  the 
story  of  the  temptation  outlines  his  later  life.  The  finger  of 
God  pointed  to  Jerusalem,  it  was  his  to  go.  His  duty  was 
not  to  save  himself,  but  to  trust  God;  not  to  find  his  own 
way,  but  to  obey.    If  God's  way  led  to  Jerusalem  and  death, 


FACING  JERUSALEM  113 

then  suffering  and  death  were  a  part  of  God's  plan  and  of 
his  work.  His  death,  then,  was  to  accompHsh  what  his  Hfe 
had  failed  to  do.  Some  glimpse  of  the  greatness  of  his 
spirit  comes  to  us  as  we  look  at  this  step.  There  is  his 
independence  of  thought.  His  spiritual  insight  is  his  own ; 
it  is  not  dependent  upon  others.  Neither  the  Old  Testament 
nor  the  teachers  of  his  day  knew  anything  of  a  suffering 
Messiah.  Yet  at  the  moment  wdien  he  takes  his  place  before 
his  disciples  as  Messiah  he  begins  to  declare  that  he  is  a 
Messiah  that  must  serve  and  suffer  and  die. 

Though  the  traditional  thought  of  the  jMessiah  did  not  Suggestions 
help  him  here,  he  seems  to  have  found  guidance  from  other  /n^jgaiah 
sources.  He  had  seen  what  had  happened  to  John  and 
read  in  it  his  own  end  (Matt  17.  9-13).  That  had  been  the 
fate  of  faithful  messengers  in  the  past,  as  he  told  them  later 
at  Jerusalem  (Matt  2;^.  29-36).  He  was  not  to  escape  it. 
It  is  not  unlikely  too  that  he  found  light  and  help  in  the 
great  words  of  the  writer  of  the  second  part  of  the  book 
of  Isaiah.  He  had  gained  inspiration  from  this  source 
before.  In  this  book  were  the  words  that  he  had  read  in 
the  synagogue  at  Nazareth  and  had  made  the  program  of 
his  life  (Isa  61.  i,  2)  ;  and  another  verse  from  this  writer 
echoes  in  the  answer  that  he  sent  back  to  John  (Isa  58.  6; 
see  Luke  4.  18,  19;  7.  22).  In  this  same  book  is  the 
wonderful  passage  about  the  suffering  servant.  From  the 
very  beginning  it  was  applied  to  Jesus  by  the  church.  He 
himself  seems  to  have  found  in  it  light  upon  the  strange 
path  that  he  was  now  to  take.  That  it  was  not  regarded  as 
a  Messianic  passage  by  the  Jews  would  have  made  no  differ- 
ence to  him.  Two  of  its  great  thoughts  reappear  in  his 
words  in  these  days.  First,  he  called  himself  a  servant. 
"The  Son  of  man  came  not  to  be  ministered  unto,  but  to 
minister"  (Mark  10.  45;  Isa  52.  13).  "I  am  in  the  midst 
of  you  as  he  that  serveth"  (Luke  22.  27).  Second,  he 
declared  that  he  was  to  "give  his  life  a  ransom  for  many" 
(Mark  10.  45").    The  same  thought  appears  in  the  prophet; 


114 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  transfig- 
uration meant 
a  preparation 


Jesus 
prepares 
his  disciples 


in  some  way  the  suffering  of  the  servant  is  to  be  for  the 
healing  and  forgiveness  of  men :  "He  was  wounded  for  our 
transgressions,  he  was  bruised  for  our  iniquities ;  the  chas- 
tisement of  our  peace  was  upon  him ;  and  with  his  stripes 
we  are  healed"  (Isa  53.  5). 

The  story  of  the  transfiguration  seems  to  come  imme- 
diately after  the  confession  at  Csesarea  Philippi  and  before 
the  journey  toward  Jerusalem.  It  was  Jesus'  own  prepara- 
tion for  the  hard  days  that  were  before  him,  and  it  has  a 
certain  correspondence  with  the  experience  at  the  baptism 
and  in  the  wilderness.  In  this  case,  as  then,  he  was  passing 
through  a  period  of  conflict.  What  he  had  settled  then  in 
principle  he  was  now  to  put  to  its  last  application.  The 
way  of  obedience  and  trust  and  service  was  to  become  the 
way  of  death.  It  was  an  hour  of  struggle,  and,  as  was  his 
custom,  he  went  apart  to  pray,  taking  with  him  Peter  and 
James  and  John.  What  that  hour  of  prayer  meant,  how 
he  won  his  victory,  and  how  the  strength  came  to  him  from 
his  Father  we  do  not  know,  except  that  here  too  a  voice 
came  to  him,  and  he  knew  that  this  course  that  he  had 
chosen  was  his  Father's  will.  But  even  the  dulled  disciples, 
heavy  with  sleep,  awoke  at  last  and  knew  that  God  was  in 
the  place.  And  so  Jesus  gathered  strength,  as  in  the  wilder- 
ness and  the  garden,  for  the  days  that  lay  before  him  (Mark 
9.  2-8;  Matt  17.  1-8;  Luke  9.  28-36). 

At  no  place  do  we  see  so  clearly  the  work  that  Jesus 
wrought  with  his  disciples.  He  did  not  simply  tell  them 
that  he  must  go  to  Jerusalem  and  die.  He  began  patiently  a 
course  of  instruction.  We  do  not  know  how  long  a  time 
elapsed  from  this  declaration  until  their  actual  arrival  at 
Jerusalem.  It  seems  to  have  been  deferred  long  enough  to 
give  opportunity  for  their  training  and  to  insure  his  presence 
there  at  the  time  of  the  great  feast  of  the  passover.  It  was 
no  easy  test  to  which  he  subjected  them.  They  had  fol- 
lowed him  on  his  wanderings  after  the  tide  had  turned 
against  him.    That  was  hard  enough.    That  he  accepted  the 


FACING  JERUSALEM  115 

role  of  Messiah  must  have  stirred  a  tumult  of  hope  and 
ardent  imagination  in  their  hearts.  Now  he  declared  that 
his  Messiahship  meant  suflfering  and  death.  No  wonder 
that  Peter  protested.  Jesus'  answer  is  significant:  "Get 
thee  behind  me,  Satan ;  for  thou  mindest  not  the  things  of 
God,  but  the  things  of  men"  (Mark  8.  ^2)-  ^'^e  might 
translate  the  words,  "You  are  not  thinking  God's  way,  but 
man's  way."  There  is  a  certain  passion  in  Jesus'  response 
that  suggests  a  deeply  stirred  soul.  It  seems  to  reveal  the 
struggle  through  which  he  had  just  passed.  Jesus  saw, 
indeed,  in  the  suggestion  of  Peter  that  he  should  turn  from 
all  this,  the  same  subtle  tempting  spirit  of  evil  that  he  had 
faced  in  the  forty  days  of  temptation.  Here,  as  there,  Jesus 
perceived  the  real  issue.  It  was  no  indifferent  matter  of 
ways  and  means.  The  whole  principle  of  life  was  at  stake. 
That  principle  he  now  set  forth  in  sharp  and  paradoxical 
phrase:  "Whosoever  would  save  his  life  shall  lose  it;  and 
whosoever  shall  lose  his  life  for  my  sake  and  the  gospel's 
shall  save  it"  (Mark  8.  35). 

The  disciples  stood  the  test.     They  followed  him  when   The  principle 
he  turned  toward  Jerusalem.    And  yet  he  had  to  return  to   "^  service 

•'  -^  ^         and  sacrifice 

his  theme  again  and  again,  now  to  set  forth  his  great  prin- 
ciple of  giving  and  serving,  again  to  declare  what  it  was  to 
mean  for  his  own  life.  They  did  not  understand  how  such 
a  fate  could  happen  to  the  Messiah  (Mark  9.  30-32).  Since 
Jesus  had  declared  himself  as  Messiah,  the  old  popular 
dreams  and  hopes  seemed  to  revive  in  them.  They  began 
disputing  as  to  the  relative  positions  they  were  to  hold  in 
his  kingdom  (Mark  9.  33-37).  Two  of  them,  James  and 
John,  boldly  took  the  matter  into  their  own  hands  and  went 
to  him,  asking  that  he  should  promise  them  first  and  second 
places  in  the  new  realm  (Mark  10.  35-45).  All  this  he 
patiently  met  by  his  teaching.  He  called  the  twelve  and 
put  a  child  in  the  midst,  teaching  the  lesson  of  humility.  He 
laid  down  again  his  great  life  principle:  "If  any  man  would 
be  first,  he  shall  be  last  of  all,  and  servant  of  all"  (Mark 


ii6 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  journey 
to  Jerusalem 


The 

demand  of 
discipleship 


9.  35;  Matt  18.  1-5).  There  is  more  sorrow  than  anger  in 
his  rebuke  of  the  sons  of  Zebedee.  He  points  to  his  own 
example:  "Which  is  greater,  he  that  sitteth  at  meat,  or  he 
that  serveth?  is  not  he  that  sitteth  at  meat?  but  I  am  in  the 
midst  of  you  as  he  that  serveth"  (Luke  22.  27). 

There  is  little  definite  knowledge  of  the  events  of  the 
last  journey  to  Jerusalem.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  it  is  not 
certain  except  in  a  few  cases,  that  the  materials  grouped 
together  by  the  evangelists  are  in  the  right  order  of  time. 
Luke  gives  us  the  picture  of  the  Master  leading  on,  fearless 
and  with  fixed  purpose :  "When  the  days  were  well-nigh 
come  that  he  should  be  received  up,  he  steadfastly  set  his 
face  to  go  to  Jerusalem"  (Luke  9.  51).  And  Mark  gives 
us  the  picture  of  the  disciples :  "And  Jesus  was  going 
before  them :  and  they  were  amazed ;  and  they  that  followed 
were  afraid"  (Mark  10.  32). 

Jesus'  teaching  during  this  period  concerned  not  only  the 
law  of  service  and  its  meaning  for  his  own  life  in  the  suffer- 
ing and  death  that  awaited  him ;  he  also  pointed  out  what 
the  demand  of  discipleship  was.  Most  of  the  sayings  in 
which  he  demands  the  supreme  surrender,  the  whole-hearted 
decision  for  himself  and  God,  come  within  this  period.  His 
disciples  were  to  be  like  men  on  their  way  to  execution 
carrying  their  own  cross;  they  were  to  come  to  him  with 
their  lives  in  their  hands,  ready  to  live  the  life  or  give  it  as 
might  seem  necessary  (Mark  8.  34).  Only  so  would  they 
really  find  their  life.  And  what  else  mattered  in  comparison 
with  life.  Better  to  lose  all  else,  the  right  eye  even,  or  the 
right  hand,  than  to  lose  life  itself  (Mark  9.  43-48).  And 
from  his  immediate  followers  he  demanded  absolute  decision. 
There  was  no  time  for  them  to  be  making  farewells  or 
burying  the  dead.  He  wanted  no  men  who  tried  to  plow 
while  looking  back  at  the  same  time  (Luke  9.  57-62).  It 
was  probably  on  this  journey  that  he  met  the  rich  young 
ruler  and  asked  him  to  give  up  his  riches  and  join  their 
company  (Mark  10.  17-22). 


FACING  JERUSALEM 


117 


Two  incidents  are  given  us  connected  with  Jesus'  passing  The  healing 
through  Jericho  on  this  last  trip  to  Jerusalem.  One  is  the  *  "*^  ° 
story  of  the  healing  of  the  bhnd  beggar,  Bartimaeus,  that 
is,  son  of  Timseus.  It  is  the  last  deed  of  healing  which  is 
described  to  us.  It  happened  probably  as  they  were  leaving 
Jericho,  though  Luke  sets  it  at  their  entrance.  There  was 
an  accompanying  crowd  from  the  city.  Learning  the  mean- 
ing of  the  excitement,  the  beggar  raised  his  voice  and  called 
upon  Jesus:  "Thou  son  of  David,  have  mercy  on  me."  It 
was  the  cry  to  which  Jesus  was  wont  to  respond,  the  cry  of 
faith  and  need,  a  cry  which  rang  only  the  louder  when  they 
tried  to  stop  him.    And  Jesus  healed  him  (Mark  10.  46-52). 

The  other  incident  is  that  of  Zacchseus,  a  chief  publican  jesusand 
and  rich  (Luke  19.  i-io).  What  Jesus  saw  was  not  the  *^®p"^'*«=*° 
publican  but  the  man,  the  man  who  could  forget  his  wealth 
and  station  and  dignity  in  his  eagerness  to  see  Jesus.  That 
Jesus  read  his  spirit  aright  is  seen  by  the  issue.  To  Jesus  the 
publican  declares :  "The  half  of  my  goods  I  give  to  the  poor ; 
and  if  I  have  wrongfully  exacted  aught  of  any  man,  I 
restore  fourfold."  It  was  but  another  instance  of  Jesus' 
open  eye  and  ready  welcome  for  that  humility  and  earnest 
desire  which  were  the  open  door  to  the  kingdom.  And 
though  he  was  almost  at  the  door  of  Jerusalem,  with  all  its 
narrowness  and  watchful  enmity,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  go 
in  and  lodge  with  this  publican  and  sinner.  Indeed,  it  is 
probable  that  he  spent  the  Sabbath  day  with  him,  as  his 
entrance  into  Jerusalem  seems  to  have  been  on  Sunday. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

As  to  the  impending  suflfering  and  death  and  its  meaning,  read 
Matt  17.  9-13;  23.  29-39;  Isa  52.  13  to  53.  12. 

As  to  the  transfiguration:  Mark  9.  2-8;  Matt  17.  1-8;  Luke  9. 
28-36. 

As  to  the  principle  of  service  and  sacrifice :  Mark  g.  33-37 ;  10.  35- 
45 ;  Luke  22.  24-27. 

The  predictions  of  suffering  and  death:  Mark  8.  31-38;  9.  3032; 
ID.  32-34. 

The  Jericho  incidents:  Mark  10.  46-52;  Luke  19.   i-io. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 
CLOSING    DAYS 


The  accounts 
of  the  last 
week 


Three 
features 


Jericho  to 
Bethany 


We  have  noted  in  our  study  how  fragmentary  the  records 
of  Jesus'  life  are.  The  opening  events  are  reported  quite 
fully,  perhaps  because  they  occurred  at  Capernaum,  the 
home  of  Peter  and  other  disciples.  For  the  long  period  of 
his  wanderings  after  leaving  Galilee  there  is  little  that  can 
be  definitely  placed.  Now,  in  the  last  week  of  his  life,  the 
accounts  suddenly  become  very  full  again.  In  the  four 
Gospels  about  one  third  of  the  space  is  given  to  these  events, 
inclusive  of  the  resurrection  stories.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  this.  The  events  took  place  in  a  great  city 
before  many  eyes.  The  city  was  the  home  of  John  Mark, 
probably  the  first  writer  of  a  complete  gospel  story.  More 
important,  however,  is  the  fact  that  these  were  days  of 
intensest  interest  to  the  disciples,  and  these  events  became 
central  for  the  faith  of  the  church.  What  happened  at  this 
time  sank  deep  into  their  hearts.  Moreover,  the  days  were 
crowded  with  teaching  and  incident. 

Three  outstanding  features  mark  Jesus'  w^ork :  First,  he 
asserts  quietly  but  unmistakably  his  Messianic  claim.  Sec- 
ond, he  speaks  a  final  and  urgent  message  of  warning. 
Third,  he  openly  enters  into  conflict  with  the  leaders  of  the 
people,  scribes,  Pharisees,  and  priests.  By  the  first  and 
third  steps  in  this  course,  instead  of  shunning  the  danger, 
he  himself  helps  to  hasten  the  end. 

The  journey  from  Jericho  was  probably  made  in  the 
early  morning  before  the  heat  of  the  day  came  on.  It  was 
a  steep  road,  rising  some  thirty-five  hundred  feet  in  the 
fifteen  miles  of  distance.  There  must  have  been  a  score  or 
more  in  Jesus'  company.  Besides  the  twelve  there  were 
a  number  of  women  (Luke  8.  1-3;  Matt  20.  20)  ;  and  there 

118 


CLOSING  DAYS 


119 


were  probably  other  disciples  accompanying.  Jerusalem  was 
not  a  strange  city  to  Jesus.  Whatever  may  be  the  case  as 
to  the  ministry  in  Jerusalem,  recorded  by  the  fourth  Gos- 
pel, as  a  loyal  Jew  Jesus  would  have  made  at  least  an  an- 
nual trip  thither  to  one  of  the  feasts,  such  a  trip  as  that 
taken  when  he  was  twelve  years  of  age.  A  couple  of 
miles  outside  the  city  lay  the  village  of  Bethany.  Accord- 
ing to  John  II,  I,  it  was  here  that  Mary  and  Martha 
lived,  and  at  their  house  the  company  probably  now 
waited  till  preparations  could  be  made  for  the  entry  into 
the  city. 

There  is  a  passage  in  Zech.  9.  9  which  describes  the  The  meaning 
entry  of  the  Messianic  King  into  Jerusalem:  "Rejoice  o'^^^^'i^y 
greatly,  O  daughter  of  Zion ;  shout,  O  daughter  of  Jeru- 
salem :  behold,  thy  king  cometh  unto  thee ;  he  is  just,  and 
having  salvation ;  lowly,  and  riding  upon  an  ass,  even  upon 
a  colt  the  foal  of  an  ass."  With  evident  purpose  Jesus 
sends  to  a  nearby  village  and  has  brought  to  him  an  ass. 
On  this  a  coat  is  spread  and,  mounting  it,  he  rides  into  the 
city.  For  those  who  might  understand,  it  was  the  first 
public  assertion  of  his  Messiahship.  At  the  same  time  it 
set  forth  the  manner  of  Messiah  that  he  was,  coming  humble, 
unarmed,  upon  a  lowly  beast. 

How  far  the  multitudes  perceived  this  we  do  not  know. 
John  says  (12.  16)  that  even  the  disciples  did  not  under- 
stand this  at  first.  So  much  at  least  they  understood,  that 
this  was  their  Master's  entrance  into  the  city  of  which  he 
was  to  be  King.  Meanwhile  the  people  that  filled  the  city 
in  thronging  crowds  at  the  passover  time,  coming  not  only 
from  Judsea  and  Galilee  but  from  parts  far  beyond,  had 
heard  of  Jesus'  presence  and  came  out  to  meet  him.  What- 
ever else  was  present,  the  dominant  note  was  enthusiasm. 
They  joined  the  disciples  in  spreading  garments  and 
branches  in  the  way,  and  raising  the  cry :  "Hosanna ; 
Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord :  Blessed 
is  the  kingdom   that   cometh,   the  kingdom   of  our   father 


The  reception 
by  the 
multitude 


I20  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

David:  Hosanna  in  the  highest"  (Mark  ii.  i-ii).  Before 
this  he  had  charged  with  silence  any  who  would  have 
greeted  him  as  Messiah,  Now  he  had  no  word  to  say,  ex- 
cept to  respond  to  the  displeasure  of  the  Pharisees  at  this 
demonstration  by  declaring,  'Tf  these  shall  hold  their  peace, 
the  stones  will  cry  out"  (Luke  19.  39,  40). 
Cleansing  Unwilling  as  yet  to  trust  himself  to  his  foes,  Tesus  with- 

the  temple  o  j  '  j 

drew  for  the  night  to  the  quiet  and  safety  of  Bethany.  Ap- 
parently, his  first  visit  on  the  next  day  was  to  the  temple. 
Here  he  saw  again  what  had  probably  often  stirred  his 
soul.  His  work  now  brought  him  into  contact  with  the 
priestly  party,  and  the  opposition  is  as  sharp  as  with  the 
Pharisees.  If  religion  was  a  matter  of  form  and  pride  with 
the  Pharisees,  it  was  a  matter  of  position  and  power  and 
profit  with  the  priests.  To  retain  its  place,  the  priestly 
party  had  shown  itself  quite  ready  to  enter  into  bargains 
with  the  'Romans.  One  of  their  sources  of  profit  was 
the  cause  of  what  now  met  Jesus'  eyes.  In  kindly 
consideration  for  the  poor,  the  law  provided  that  a  pair 
of  doves  would  be  acceptable  as  an  offering  from  these 
(Lev  5.  5-10).  The  temple  party  found  this  a  chance  for 
profitable  traffic.  Still  another  chance  came  with  the  re- 
quired payment  of  the  temple  tax.  For  this  only  the 
coins  were  accepted  that  Israel  herself  had  once  minted,  and 
Roman  money  had  to  be  exchanged  for  these.  So  the 
temple  courts  were  filled  with  the  money-changers  and 
sellers  of  doves,  all  this  being  a  monopoly  of  the  priests. 
Stirred  with  anger,  Jesus  drove  them  out,  "Is  it  not  writ- 
ten," he  said,  "My  house  shall  be  called  a  house  of  prayer 
for  all  nations?  But  ye  have  made  it  a  den  for  robbers" 
(Mark  11,  17).  Apparently,  his  righteous  anger  joined 
to  the  approval  of  the  multitudes  left  them  no  desire  for 
resistance,  nor  did  they  dare  to  call  the  temple  officers. 
"They  could  not  find  what  they  might  do;  for  the  people 
all  hung  upon  him,  listening"  (Luke  19.  47,  48;  Mark  11. 

15-19)- 


CLOSING  DAYS 


121 


The  second  aspect  of  these  last  days  of  Jesus'  ministry   The  lament 


is  the  note  of  warning.  It  appears  in  the  double  lament  over 
Jerusalem.  The  first  of  these  Luke  gives  us  as  spoken 
by  Jesus  at  the  time  of  the  triumphal  entry.  As  he  drew 
nigh  the  city,  he  wept  over  it.  He  was  about  to  make  his 
last  appeal,  but  the  city  did  not  recognize  its  day  of  visi- 
tation. Soon  the  day  of  warfare  would  come,  and  its  foes 
would  overthrow  it  (Luke  19.  41-44).  The  other  is  placed 
by  Matthew  after  the  woes  against  the  Pharisees.  Its  beau- 
tiful words  show  his  distress  for  the  city  and  his  confidence 
as  to  his  ultimate  triumph:  "O,  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  that 
killeth  the  prophets,  and  stoneth  them  that  are  sent  unto 
her !  how  often  would  I  have  gathered  thy  children  together, 
even  as  a  hen  gathereth  her  chickens  under  her  wings,  and 
ye  would  not!  Behold,  your  house  is  left  unto  you  deso- 
late !  For  I  say  unto  you,  ye  shall  not  see  me  henceforth, 
till  ye  shall  say,  Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord"  (Matt  23.  37-39). 

The  same  message  is  given  in  several  parables.  The 
first  of  these  is  placed  by  Luke  on  the  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem  (19.  11-27).  Matthew's  parable  of  the  talents 
may  be  simply  a  variant  of  the  same  (25.  14-30).  Luke's 
story  of  the  nobleman  who  went  to  get  his  kingdom  is  the 
history  of  Archelaus.  .\t  his  death  Herod  had  bequeathed 
Judaea  and  Samaria  to  his  son  Archelaus.  The  latter  had  to 
go  to  Rome  to  have  his  title  to  the  realm  confirmed.  There 
he  was  opposed  by  an  embassy  from  Judsea,  against  whom, 
however,  he  was  successful.  All  this  Jesus  uses  to  enforce 
his  lesson  of  stewardship.  He  is  the  King  who  is  to  depart 
and  leave  the  interests  of  the  Kingdom  in  their  trust. 
And  they  are  to  answer  for  the  use  they  make  of  their 
pounds. 

The  parable  of  the  fig  tree  is  a  similar  warning,  addressed 
not  to  the  disciples  but  to  the  nation.  Israel  was  the  un- 
fruitful fig  tree  having  its  last  opportunity.  "Let  it  alone 
this  year  also,  till  I  shall  dig  about  it  and  dung  it ;  and  if  it 


and  the 
warning 


Parables  of 
warning 


Fig  tree  and 
vineyard 


122 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Days  of 
conflict 


The  tribute 
money 


bear  fruit  thenceforth,  well ;  but  if  not,  thou  shalt  cut  it 
down"  (Luke  13.  1-9).  The  story  of  the  cursing  of  the 
fig  tree  is  nothing  more  than  this  same  parable  acted  in- 
stead of  spoken  (Mark  11.  12-14,  20-23).  Jesus  sees  a 
fig  tree  in  full  leaf,  but  finds  no  fruit  as  he  comes  in  search. 
He  pronounces  a  curse  upon  it,  and  they  find  it  withered 
as  they  pass  the  next  day.  As  a  mere  act  of  petulance  this 
is  inconceivable.  Some  have  thought  that  the  whole  story 
as  found  in  Matthew  and  Mark  grew  out  of  Luke's  parable 
just  noted.  The  other  alternative  would  be  to  conceive  it 
as  the  same  parable  put  into  action,  as  the  old  prophets 
were  wont  to  do.  The  parable  of  the  Lord's  vineyard  is 
more  a  parable  of  judgment  than  of  warning.  The  figure 
was  familiar  (Isa  5.  i;  Psa  80.  8),  Israel  was  like  a 
vineyard  intrusted  by  its  master  to  the  care  of  husbandmen 
who  were  to  make  some  return  of  its  fruits.  Jehovah  had 
been  sending  his  servants,  the  prophets,  and  looking  to 
Israel  for  fruitage.  Instead  they  had  beaten  and  slain  them. 
Now  he  had  sent  his  Son,  and  they  would  put  him  to 
death.  There  could  be  but  one  end — that  the  vineyard 
should  be  taken  from  them  and  given  to  others.  Here  again, 
with  the  warning,  is  the  assertion  of  Jesus'  own  Messiahship 
(Mark  12.  1-12). 

The  third  outstanding  aspect  of  these  last  days  was  Jesus' 
open  conflicts  with  his  enemies.  Again  and  again  they 
tried  to  entrap  him.  "By  what  authority  doest  thou  these 
things?"  they  asked  him  (Mark  ii.  27-33).  He  met  them 
wi'th  another  question:  "The  baptism  of  John,  was  it  from 
heaven,  or  from  men?"  His  own  authority,  he  felt,  was 
like  that  of  John,  from  God  himself.  But  they  dared  not 
answer  his  simple  question.  To  say  from  God  was  to  con- 
demn themselves,  for  they  had  not  believed  John ;  to  say 
from  men  would  stir  against  them  the  people  who  held  John 
a  prophet. 

Their  second  question  seemed  more  cleverly  planned: 
"Is  it  lawful  to  give  tribute  unto  Csesar  or  not?"  (Mark  12. 


CLOSING  DAYS 


123 


13-17).  To  say  yes  would  arouse  the  people;  to  say  no 
would  give  them  ground  for  lodging  charges  with  the 
Romans.  Jesus'  action  was  as  simple  as  it  was  unanswer- 
able. He  called  for  a  coin  and  asked  them  what  image  it 
bore.  They  answered,  "Caesar's."  "Render  unto  Caesar 
the  things  that  are  Caesar's,  and  unto  God  the  things  that 
are  God's,"  was  his  reply.  His  answer  was  not  an  effort 
to  divide  matters  between  church  and  state,  nor  yet  a  mere 
clever  device  to  confound  them.  They  were  quibbling ;  his 
whole  passion  was  to  have  men  yield  to  God  the  things 
that  were  God's. 

The  incident  with  the  Sadducees  shows  how  Jesus  could  The  question 

.         of  the 

take  a  trifling,  absurd  query  and  lift  it  to  moral  and  spir-  sadducees 
itual  heights  (Mark  12.  18-27).  They  brought  him  the  im- 
possible and  foolish  case  of  a  woman  who,  in  accordance 
with  the  old  law  (Deut  25.  5-10),  had  been  married  in  turn 
to  seven  brothers.  'Tn  the  resurrection  whose  wife  shall 
she  be  of  them  ?"  they  asked.  It  was  their  effort  to  laugh 
out  of  court  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  in  which  they 
did  not  believe.  Jesus  left  their  absurdities  to  one  side. 
He  simply  replied :  "You  do  not  know  the  Scriptures  or 
the  power  of  God :  and  as  to  the  life  to  come,  have  you 
not  read  the  word,  I  am  the  God  of  Abraham,  and  the  God 
of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob?  God  is  not  the  God  of 
the  dead,  but  of  the  living." 

The  climax  of  his  controversy  was  reached  in  the  seven  The  seven 
woes  in  which  he  denounced  the  Pharisees  (Matt  23.  13-  '*'°^^ 
36).  Matthew,  who  gives  them  most  fully,  is  probably  right 
in  placing  them  here.  Here,  at  the  close  of  his  ministry, 
he  shows  forth  the  inner  spirit  of  that  whole  system  of  rules 
and  formalism  into  which  the  religion  of  his  people  had  de- 
generated. These  words  could  have  only  one  result — an 
open  enmity  that  should  end  in  his  death. 

No  passage  in  the  Gospels  is  more  difficult  to  interpret  Jesus' 
than  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Mark  and  its  parallels.    Jesus  J^e'^J'jJf,'^ '" 
and   his   disciples   were   leaving  the   temple,   the   splendid 


124 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Jewish 
apocalypses 


Jesus  and 

apocalyptic 

thought 


building  which  was  the  pride  of  all  the  Jews.  Deeply 
impressed,  one  of  them  said  to  him,  "Teacher,  behold,  what 
manner  of  stones  and  what  manner  of  building."  Then 
Jesus  made  the  startling  answer  which  was  the  basis  of  one 
of  the  charges  made  against  him  in  his  trial :  "There  shall 
not  be  left  here  one  stone  upon  another,  which  shall  not 
be  thrown  down."  A  double  thought  was  probably  in 
Jesus'  mind :  first,  that  city  and  temple  were  doomed  to 
destruction  at  the  hands  of  Israel's  enemies ;  second,  that 
the  temple  and  what  it  stood  for  was  to  make  place  for 
a  truer  faith.  The  natural  question  of  the  disciples  was, 
"When  shall  these  things  be?  and  what  shall  be  the  sign 
when  these  things  are  all  about  to  be  accomplished?"  Then 
follows  a  discourse,  different  from  the  customary  direct  and 
simple  teachings  of  the  Master,  describing  the  woes  that 
are  to  come  and  the  strange  signs  that  are  to  herald  them. 

The  whole  passage  resembles  strongly  a  class  of  writ- 
ings well  known  among  the  Jews  at  this  time,  called 
apocalyptic.  An  apocalypse  is  an  uncovering  of  secret 
things,  especially  of  the  future.  The  books  of  Daniel  and 
Revelation  are  examples  within  our  Bible.  The  minds  of 
the  people  were  filled  with  apocalyptic  ideas  at  this  time. 
The  writings  were  generally  marked  by  three  features :  ( i ) 
a  certain  circle  of  ideas  including  those  of  judgment,  resur- 
rection, the  overthrow  of  the  devil  and  his  angels,  the  de- 
struction of  the  earth,  and  the  appearance  of  a  new  heaven 
and  a  new  earth;  (2)  the  discussion  of  times  and  seasons 
and  the  signs  of  these  events;  (3)  imaginative  descriptions 
of  the  glories  of  the  new  age. 

If  we  are  to  judge  Jesus'  relation  to  all  this,  we  must 
look  at  his  teaching  as  a  whole,  remembering  how  easily 
in  individual  cases  his  teachings  might  be  unconsciously 
changed  by  those  who  handed  them  down  in  the  years 
before  they  were  written  out.  In  his  clear  and  definite 
teaching  he  shows  some  agreement  with  this  apocalyptic 
thought  and  some  differences.     ( i )  Jesus  believed  with  these 


CLOSING  DAYS  125 

writers  that  the  rule  of  God  was  coming  and  that  there  was 
to  be  a  new  earth.  That  was  his  teaching  of  the  kingdom 
of  God.  (2)  Jesus  beHeved  that  he  was  to  come  again, 
and  that  he  was  to  judge  men.  When  he  knew  that 
suffering  and  death  were  before  him,  he  began  at  the  same 
time  to  declare  that  he  should  come  in  glory  and  that  he 
was  to  be  the  judge  of  men  (Mark  8.  38;  j\Iatt  25.  31-46; 
26.  64).  (3)  He  believed  that  this  coming  was  near  at  hand 
(J\Iatt  10.  23;  Mark  9.  i).  But  (4)  the  whole  spirit  and 
tone  of  Jesus'  teaching  was  different.  Although,  like  the 
early  church  and  Paul,  he  thought  that  the  coming  was  near 
at  hand,  yet  he  did  not  deal  in  figures  and  calculations. 
'*But  of  that  day  or  that  hour  knoweth  no  one,  not  even  the 
angels  in  heaven,  neither  the  Son,  but  the  Father"  (Mark 
13-  32)-  (5)  His  interest  was  not  in  drawing  pictures  of 
physical  glories.  A  fragment  from  an  ancient  writer  shows 
us  what  some  of  these  dreams  were.  In  this  Jesus  is  re- 
ported as  having  said :  "The  days  will  come  in  which  vines 
shall  grow  having  each  ten  thousand  branches,  and  in  each 
branch  ten  thousand  twigs,  and  in  each  twig  ten  thousand 
shoots,  and  in  every  one  of  the  shoots  ten  thousand  clusters, 
and  on  every  one  of  the  clusters  ten  thousand  grapes,  and 
every  grape  when  pressed  will  give  five  and  twenty  metretes 
of  wine."  Jesus  did  not  talk  of  the  future  to  bring  such 
visions  to  men,  but  to  strengthen  them  against  coming 
trial  and  to  call  them  to  watchfulness  and  earnestness. 

Many  scholars  believe  that  these  words  of  Mark  13  be-  Does  this 
long  only  in  part  to  Jesus.  It  may  very  well  be  that  the  Represent 
question  of  the  disciples  led  Jesus  to  speak  of  the  future, 
to  tell  them  of  the  days  of  trial  that  he  foresaw,  that  he 
might  forewarn  and  prepare,  as  well  as  to  declare  his  own 
confidence  in  the  future.  With  their  own  minds  full  of 
these  apocalyptic  hopes,  the  changes  may  easily  have  crept 
in,  or  even  teachings  have  been  added  which  they  assumed 
to  represent  his  thought.  In  the  end  we  must  fall  back 
upon  the  body  of  Jesus'  teachings  and  their  unmistakable 


126  NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

moral  and  spiritual  emphasis,  so  different  from  the  apoc- 
alyptic dreams  that  filled  men's  minds  at  that  time. 
The  picture  It  was  probably  at  this  time  that  Jesus  drew  the  great 

o  ju  gment  j\^(_igi-iient  sccne  given  in  Matt  25.  31-46.  Here,  as  in  the 
other  picture  teaching  of  Jesus,  it  is  a  mistake  to  seek  a 
special  meaning  in  every  detail.  Two  great  truths  stand 
out.  The  first  is  the  fact  of  judgment.  The  second  is  the 
principle  of  judgment.  Here  nothing  is  said  of  nation- 
ality, Jewish  or  Greek,  nothing  of  creeds  or  forms  of  prac- 
tice;  men  are  judged  by  the  spirit  of  love  and  helpfulness, 
and  the  service  done  to  the  needy  Jesus  accounts  as  a  serv- 
ice rendered  to  himself. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND   STUDY 
The  Messianic  King.    Read  Mark  11.  i-ii;  Luke  19.  39,  40;  Mark 

II.  15-19. 

Words  of  warning:  Read  Luke  19.  41-44;  Matt  23.  37-39;  Luke 
19.  11-27;  Matt  25.  14-30;  Luke  13.  1-9;  Mark  11.  12-14,  20-23; 
Mark  12.   1-12. 

Conflicts:    Read  Mark  11.  27-33;   12.   13-27;  Matt  23.   1-36. 

The  future:    Read  Mark  13;  Matt  25.  31-46. 

State  in  your  own  language  Jesus'  charges  against  the  Pharisees 
as  given  in  Matt  23.  1-36. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  LAST  HOURS 

The  last  hours  were  at  hand.  No  one  knew  it  better  The  plot 
than  Jesus.  The  elements  of  power  were  arrayed  against 
him :  on  the  one  side  the  priestly  party,  or  Sadducees,  whom 
his  deed  at  the  temple  had  angered ;  on  the  other  the  Phari- 
sees, with  their  leaders,  the  scribes,  who  had  opposed  him 
from  the  beginning.  The  two  parties  were  usually  bitterly 
opposed  to  each  other ;  now  they  were  ready  to  join  hands 
(Alark  14.  i,  2;  Matt  26.  1-5).  For  the  present  they  feared 
the  people,  the  crowds  of  the  pilgrims  who  were  present 
for  the  passover  and  who  favored  Jesus ;  but  they  were 
waiting  their  chance.  Jesus  had  been  spending  his  days 
during  this  last  week  in  the  city,  teaching  in  the  courts  of 
the  temple  where  the  people  gathered.  The  first  night  he 
had  gone  to  his  friends  in  Bethany,  after  that  apparently 
to  some  house  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives  (Mark  11.  11; 
Luke  21.  37,  38).  The  circumstances  gave  Judas  his  op- 
portunity. A  double  motive  probably  prevailed  with  this 
disciple  in  the  deed  which  has  made  his  memory  a  shame. 
Like  many  others,  he  had  been  moved  at  first  by  the  preach- 
ing of  Jesus.  But  while  the  others  of  the  twelve  stood  loyal, 
he  could  not  meet  the  test  when  Jesus  began  to  declare  that 
his  kingdom  was  not  to  mean  earthly  power  and  that  suffer- 
ing and  death  impended.  It  is  likely  that  a  certain  angry 
resentment  at  Jesus'  course  made  his  natural  avarice  more 
ready  to  respond  when  the  temptation  came  to  gain  a  re- 
ward by  taking  Jesus'  foes  to  this  place  of  his  retirement. 
And  so  he  bargained  with  them  for  his  thirty  pieces  of 
silver  (Mark  14.  10,  11). 

Mark  and  Matthew  both  give  the  incident  of  the  anointing  The  anointing 
at  this  place  (Mark  14.  3-9).     It  may  have  occurred  that 

127 


128 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  supper- 
was  it  the 
passover? 


Another 
warning 


first  day  of  Jesus'  entry  after  he  had  returned  to  Bethany. 
John  tells  us  that  it  was  Mary  of  Bethany  who  brought 
the  costly  ointment  and  poured  it  over  his  head,  breaking 
the  bottle  as  though  she  would  not  have  it  subject  after 
this  to  any  common  use.  To  the  prosaic  disciples  it  seemed 
a  foolish,  wasteful  deed.  Here,  as  so  often,  Jesus  shows 
his  appreciation  of  the  finer  aspects  and  deeper  meanings 
of  life  as  he  rebukes  them.  For  him  it  was  a  deed  worthy 
to  be  told  wherever  his  gospel  was  proclaimed.  In  this 
hour  when  he  faced  his  great  trial,  such  an  act  of  tender 
and  gracious  love  moved  his  heart.  "She  hath  anointed 
my  body  beforehand  for  the  burying." 

The  last  crowded  days  must  have  left  Jesus  little  time 
for  his  disciples.  With  the  end  drawing  near  he  felt  the 
need  of  such  time  both  for  fellowship  and  for  instruction. 
"With  desire  I  have  desired  to  eat  this  passover  with  you 
before  I  suffer,"  Luke  reports  him  saying  (22.  15).  All 
the  Gospels  report  in  detail  the  last  supper  which  they  ate 
together.  It  was  held  in  the  upper  room  of  the  house  of 
some  friend  in  the  city  (Matt  26.  17-19).  Whether  this 
supper  was  the  passover,  scholars  are  not  agreed.  The 
synoptic  Gospels  state  this  definitely,  but  there  are  strong 
reasons  to  the  contrary.  Had  this  been  the  night  of  the 
passover,  the  Jewish  leaders  would  not  have  been  abroad, 
but  would  all  have  been  at  their  homes,  according  to  strict 
custom.  Neither  could  any  trial  have  been  held  on  the 
following  day,  for  the  day  was  holy  like  a  Sabbath  day. 
In  this  case  the  right  tradition  seems  to  be  that  of  the  fourth 
Gospel,  which  definitely  fixes  the  following  day  as  the  pass- 
over  (John  13.  I,  29;  18.  28).  In  the  symbolism  of  the 
early  church  the  Lord's  Supper  was  looked  upon  as  the 
Christian  passover,  and  that  is  the  probable  ground  for  the 
tradition  as  to  date  which  the  synoptic  Gospels  follow. 

There  was  one  element  of  discord  in  the  company  that 
gathered  about  the  table.  No  doubt  Jesus  had  made  more 
than  one  attempt  to  stem  the  change  which  he  had  seen 


THE  LAST  HOURS  129 

taking  place  in  Judas  in  these  last  days.  Now  he  saw  that 
it  had  been  in  vain.  Perhaps  he  wished  to  make  a  last 
appeal ;  possibly,  failing  of  that,  to  remove  Judas  from  the 
company  that  he  might  have  these  hours  in  unmarred  fel- 
lowship. The  fourth  Gospel  states  that  Judas  left  during 
the  evening.  In  any  case.  Jesus  warns  his  disciples  once 
more  of  the  approaching  danger  by  telling  them  that  one 
of  their  own  company  should  betray  him,  one  that  was 
taking  food  with  him  from  the  same  dish. 

Then  followed  another  lesson,  a  parable  which  was  to  be  The  new 
acted  again  and  again  in  the  long  years  to  come  (Mark  14. 
22-25;  Matt  26.  26-29;  Luke  22.  15-20).  As  so  often  in 
the  past,  Jesus  used  a  picture  to  set  forth  the  truth,  this 
time,  however,  putting  it  in  action.  Taking  a  piece  of  bread 
during  the  supper,  he  broke  it  and  said,  "This  is  my  body." 
And  giving  them  in  turn  the  cup  of  wine,  he  said,  "This 
is  my  blood  of  the  new  covenant,  which  is  poured  out  for 
many."  The  act  and  the  simple  words  were  full  of  mean- 
ing. Here  was  another  v^ord  of  warning  to  prepare  his 
disciples  for  his  coming  death.  Here,  again,  was  an  inter- 
pretation of  that  death.  Though  the  hatred  and  evil  of 
men  might  bring  it  about,  Jesus  knew  that  his  death  was 
the  will  of  the  Father  and  for  the  saving  of  men.  To  the 
words,  "poured  out  for  many,"  Matthew  adds  "unto  remis- 
sion of  sins."  Though  the  action  of  Jesus  came  so  simply, 
there  was  evident  deep  solemnity  and  consciousness  of  what 
this  meant.  He  spoke  of  a  new  covenant  that  he  was  estab- 
lishing. Long  years  before  Jeremiah  had  spoken  of  such 
a  day,  when  Jehovah  was  to  write  his  law  not  upon  tablets 
of  stone  but  in  the  hearts  of  men.  Jesus  knew  that  this 
new  day  for  men  had  come.  The  oldest  record  of  these 
events  comes  not  from  the  Gospels  but  from  the  apostle 
Paul,  writing  some  twenty  years  after  this  time  (i  Cor  11, 

23-25)- 

From  the  upper  room  the  little  company  started  out  for  a  final 
the  Mount  of  Olives  where  they  had  been  spending  the  last   *^™'°« 


130 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  praying 
in  the  garden 


Arrest, 
desertion, 
and  denial 


few  nights.  Jesus'  thought  was  still  with  his  disciples. 
One  had  already  deserted  him.  Despite  all  efforts  to  pre- 
pare them,  he  foresaw  how  it  would  be  with  the  others. 
You  shall  all  be  offended  in  me,  he  told  them.  Peter,  ready 
as  ever,  insisted  that  he  at  least  would  be  loyal.  Jesus 
knew  that  the  end  was  at  hand.  Before  cock  crow,  he  says 
to  Peter,  that  is,  before  early  morning,  "Thou  shalt  deny 
me  thrice"  (Mark  14.  26-31). 

They  had  reached  the  Mount  of  Olives  now  and  the  place 
called  Gethsemane.  Jesus  knew  upon  what  errand  Judas 
had  gone.  Flight  would  have  been  easy.  His  enemies  did 
not  care  so  much  for  his  life  as  simply  to  be  rid  of  him. 
But  Jesus  had  settled  long  since  where  his  path  lay.  Though 
there  was  no  hesitation,  there  was,  however,  a  shrinking 
and  a  deep  anguish  of  spirit.  It  was  not  simply  the  horror 
of  a  terrible  death.  There  was  the  deep  concern  for  his 
disciples  that  had  been  weighing  upon  him,  and  for  his 
people.  For  this  hour  he  had  prepared  in  the  temptation. 
To  this  he  had  looked  forward  in  that  night  of  prayer  on 
the  mount  of  transfiguration.  To  these  two  great  hours  of 
struggle  the  third  and  hardest  was  now  added.  "My  soul 
is  exceeding  sorrowful  even  unto  death,"  he  told  the  three 
disciples  whom  he  had  asked  to  watch  with  him.  Prone 
on  his  face  he  prays.  The  passion  of  his  soul  trembles 
through  his  prayer:  'Tf  it  be  possible,  let  this  cup  pass 
away  from  me."  Yet  the  deep  undercurrent  is  the  same 
as  in  that  prayer  which  he  taught  his  disciples.  There  is 
perfect  confidence,  and  there  is  utter  surrender  to  the  will 
of  God:  "Abba,  Father,  .  .  .  not  what  I  will,  but  what 
thou  wilt"    (Mark   14.   32-42;   Matt  26.   36-46;   Luke  22. 

39-46). 

In  the  distance  Jesus  heard  his  enemies  approaching. 
Worn  out  with  the  strain  of  the  week,  the  disciples  had 
slept  while  he  prayed.  While  he  was  yet  calling  them, 
Judas  came  leading  a  band  of  soldiers  and  servants  from 
the  Pharisees  and  the  priests.     What  Jesus  foresaw  took 


THE  LAST  T TOURS  131 

place ;  the  disciples  were  panic-stricken.  "They  all  left 
him  and  fled"  (Mark  14.  43-52).  Mark  adds  the  curious 
incident  of  the  young  man  who  followed  with  only  a  linen 
cloth  flung  about  him,  and  who  fled  naked  when  they  tried 
to  seize  him.  It  is  an  interesting  possibility  that  this  was 
Mark  himself,  that  the  disciples  had  taken  the  Last  Sup- 
per at  his  mother's  home  (see  Acts  12.  12),  and  that  the 
young  man,  awakening  from  sleep,  had  followed  them.  If 
so,  then  the  suggestion  is  correct  that  we  have  in  this 
anonymous  reference  "the  monogram  of  the  artist  in  a  dark 
corner  of  the  painting."  Peter,  a  little  braver  than  the 
rest,  followed  to  the  house  of  the  high  priest,  where  Judas 
was  first  taken.  Luke  tells  the  story  of  his  denial  simply 
but  vividly.  Sitting  in  the  light  of  the  fire  that  had  been 
kindled  in  the  court,  one  after  another  of  the  servants,  see- 
ing Peter,  charged  him  with  being  a  follower  of  Jesus  the 
Galilsean.  Three  times  Peter  uttered  this  denial.  "And  the 
Lord  turned,  and  looked  upon  Peter.  And  Peter  remem- 
bered the  word  of  the  Lord,  how  that  he  said  unto  him. 
Before  the  cock  crow  this  day  thou  shalt  deny  me  thrice. 
And  he  went  out  and  w^ept  bitterly"  (Luke  22.  54-62). 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND   STUDY 

The  plot:    Mark   14.   i,  2,   10,    11;   read  also  Matt  27.  3-10. 

The  anointing:    Mark  14.  3-9. 

The  Last  Supper:  Mark  14.  12-25;  Luke  22.  15-20;  compare 
I   Cor  II.  23-25. 

Warnings:    Mark   14.   26-31;    Luke   22.    35-38. 

At  Gethsemane:    Mark  14.  32-52. 

The  denial:    Mark  14.  66-72. 

Write  down  the  instances  found  in  these  passages  of  Jesus'  at- 
tempt to  prepare  his  disciples  for  the  end. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  TRIAL  AND  CRUCIFIXION 

The  course  The  accouiits  of  the  trial  of  Jesus  do  not  wholly  agree. 

According  to  Mark  and  Matthew,  Jesus  was  at  once  taken  to 
the  house  of  the  high  priest  and  thus  brought  before  the  San- 
hedrin  while  it  was  yet  night.  John  may  be  right  in  stating 
that  he  was  first  taken  to  Annas,  former  high  priest,  father- 
in-law  of  Caiaphas  and  probably  the  real  leader  in  the  move- 
ment against  Jesus.  A  night  meeting  would  be  irregular, 
but  they  were  in  great  haste.  The  next  day  was  the  pass- 
over.  The  preparations  for  the  feast  began  on  this  the  pre- 
ceding day  and  so  the  latter  part  of  this  day  was  sacred. 
They  must  not  trench  upon  the  sacred  day,  and  they  must 
run  no  risk  of  trouble  being  made  by  the  people  in  Jesus' 
favor.  At  any  cost  Jesus  must  be  brought  before  the 
Roman  governor  for  judgment  immediately.  So  the  lead- 
ers may  have  been  gathered  at  once,  and  the  formal  judg- 
ment not  passed    till  morning,  as  Luke  22.  (^  suggests. 

The  Even  now  they  were  scrupulous  about  the  formal  rules 

of  procedure.  In  their  own  minds  the  case  was  settled: 
Jesus  had  flouted  sacred  laws  and  customs.  He  had  set  their 
authority  at  naught  in  cleansing  the  temple.  He  had  con- 
demned them  as  faithless  in  his  parables.  But  they  must 
find  a  charge  upon  which  they  could  condemn  him  to  death 
and  they  must  have  two  witnesses  agree.  In  this  they 
failed.  Then  at  last  the  high  priest  challenged  Jesus  with 
the  question,  "Art  thou  the  Christ?"  Jesus  had  been  silent. 
Now  he  must  respond  if  he  was  to  be  true  to  himself;  and 
there  was  confidence  and  courage  in  his  answer:  'T  am: 
and  ye  shall  see  the  Son  of  man  sitting  at  the  right  hand 
of  Power,  and  coming  with  the  clouds  of  heaven."     With 

132 


conviction 


accusation 
before  Pilate 


THE  TRIAL  AND  CRUCIFIXION  133 

such  assurance  Jesus  faced  the  end.  To  them  it  was  blas- 
phemy, and  they  forthwith  passed  their  sentence. 

They  next  had  to  secure  a  sentence  from  Pilate.  The  The 
Sanhedrin  had  large  powers  of  local  government,  but  not 
that  of  the  sentence  of  death.  Before  Pilate  Jesus'  offense 
had  to  be  given  a  political  turn.  Not  blasphemy  was  the 
charge,  but  that  as  Messiah  he  conspired  to  be  king.  Pilate's 
position  in  Jerusalem  was  not  an  easy  one.  Rome  had  no- 
where a  people  more  difficult  to  handle.  It  was  apparent 
to  him  from  the  first  that  there  was  no  real  treason  here. 
The  poor  peasant  who  stood  before  him  must  have  seemed 
to  him  only  a  harmless  fanatic.  But  these  fierce  leaders 
of  the  Jews,  insistent  and  stirring  up  the  people,  were  by  no 
means  harmless,  and  Jewish  tumults  were  not  to  be  courted. 
So  Pilate  wavers  between  the  desire  to  release  Jesus  and 
the  fear  of  consequences. 

The  court  seems  to  have  been  held  before  the  palace.   Piiate, 
Pilate's  first  judgment  was,  "I  find  no  fault  in  this  man."   Herod,  and 

JO'  ^  the  people 

The  priests  then  added  another  charge,  that  he  was  stirring 
up  the  people  from  Galilee  to  Judaea  to  revolt.  Pilate 
grasped  at  the  word  Galilee.  If  this  was  a  Galilasan  the 
case  belonged  to  Herod,  who  was  at  the  time  in  the  city.  So 
at  last  Jesus  met  that  crafty,  cruel  ruler  whom  he  had  called 
"that  fox."  Before  Herod's  shallow  curiosity,  however, 
Jesus  kept  silence,  and  Herod  had  no  deeper  interest.  So 
back  to  Pilate  Jesus  went,  and  the  governor  sought  again 
to  release  him.  And  now  the  people  came  into  action. 
Their  favor  had  been  short-lived ;  they  had  no  room  for 
a  Messiah  who  could  not  defend  himself.  Pilate  appealed 
to  them,  offering  to  release  Jesus  according  to  a  certain 
custom ;  but  the  people,  stirred  up  by  the  priests,  called  for 
another  prisoner  and  began  to  raise  their  cry  against  Jesus, 
"Crucify,  crucify."  Cowardly  at  heart,  Pilate  at  last  passed 
sentence  of  death. 

And  now  for  tlie  third  time  that  morning  Jesus  suffers   The  mocking 
mockery  and  abuse.    This  meek  and  silent  figure  in  peasant's   °'  ^^^"^ 


134 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  way  of 
the  cross 


The 

crucifixion 
The  seven 
words 


garb,  yet  claiming  to  be  the  Messiah,  had  stirred  his  foes  to 
brutal  ridicule.  They  had  mocked  him  in  the  court  of 
Caiaphas,  striking  the  blindfolded  captive  and  bidding  him 
name  the  man  who  struck  him.  Herod's  soldiers  had  put 
on  gorgeous  garments  in  mockery.  Now  Pilate  hands  him 
over  to  his  men  and,  after  the  brutal  custom  of  the  time, 
Jesus  suffers  the  cruelty  of  scourging.  The  soldiers  in  play 
give  him  crown  and  robe  and  a  reed  for  scepter,  and  then 
change  their  mock  homage  to  blows  and  insult. 

All  this  did  not  last  long,  for  Mark  says  the  crucifixion 
took  place  at  nine.  The  criminal  himself  was  usually  com- 
pelled to  bear  the  heavy  timber  upon  which  he  was  later 
hung.  Jesus  was  evidently  too  weak  for  this.  The  name 
of  the  man  who  bore  the  cross  is  probably  remembered 
as  being  later  a  disciple.  Broken  though  he  may  have  been, 
Jesus  still  had  a  word  for  the  few  women  who  followed 
him  lamenting,  and  for  the  city  whose  end  he  saw. 

Crucifixion  was  a  mode  of  death  made  terrible  by  pro- 
longed suffering,  to  which  was  added  the  shame  of  a 
form  of  execution  reserved  for  slaves  and  lowest  criminals. 
In  the  presence  of  the  deeper  agony  of  spirit  the  mere  de- 
scription of  physical  suft'ering  is  out  of  place.  It  was  the 
common  place  of  execution  to  which  Jesus  was  led,  and 
two  robbers  suffered  the  penalty  at  the  same  time.  In  few 
words  the  Gospels  have  given  us  the  picture:  the  hardened 
soldiery  gambling  for  his  garments,  his  enemies  jeering 
at  him.  the  crowds  looking  on,  and  the  women  who  had  fol- 
lowed him  from  the  north  sorrowing  at  a  distance.  The 
four  Gospels  report  seven  words  of  Jesus  spoken  from  the 
cross.  In  only  one  case,  however,  do  two  of  the  Gospels 
report  the  same  word.  Two  words  are  reported  as  spoken 
to  others :  one  to  the  penitent  thief,  "Verily  I  say  unto  thee, 
To-day  shalt  thou  be  with  me  in  paradise";  and  one  given 
by  John,  spoken  to  his  mother  and  a  disciple:  "Woman, 
behold,  thy  son,"  and  "Behold,  thy  mother."  Three  words 
of  prayer  are  reported:  "Father,  forgive  them;  for  they 


THE  TRIAL  AND  CRUCIFIXION  135 

know  not  what  they  do";  "My  God,  my  God,  why  hast 
thou  forsaken  me?"  "Father,  into  thy  hands  I  commend  my 
spirit."  The  fourth  Gospel  adds  two  other  words:  "I 
thirst,"  and  "It  is  finished."  The  wine  and  myrrh,  offered 
to  deaden  the  senses  and  to  lessen  the  pain,  Jesus  refused. 
He  wished  to  keep  his  full  consciousness  to  the  last.  In- 
stead of  the  suffering-  which  often  lasted  two  or  three  days, 
Jesus'  death  came  after  but  three  hours,  and  then,  appar- 
ently, suddenly.  "Jesus  cried  again  with  a  loud  voice,  and 
yielded  up  his  spirit." 

His  death  showed  again  how  he  had  been  able  to  bind  Friends 
men  to  him.  From  all  the  cruelty  and  brutality  and  indif- 
ference of  that  hour,  there  stands  forth  the  devotion  of 
the  women  from  Galilee  who  watched  the  scene  from  afar. 
And  to  them  must  be  joined  Joseph  of  Arimathsea,  evidently 
a  man  of  wealth  and  prominence,  probably  a  member  of 
the  Sanhedrin.  Joseph  had  the  courage  to  ask  for  the 
body  from  Pilate,  and  provided  the  tomb  in  which  it  was 
buried. 

As  he  had  lived,  so  Jesus  died,  in  the  spirit  of  love  for  The  spirit 
men  for  whose  saving  he  counted  this  death,  and  in  utter  ^  death 
confidence  and  obedience  toward  God.  One  word  seems  to 
indicate  that  this  confidence  left  him  for  at  least  a  moment 
— the  cry  which  Matthew  and  Mark  report:  "My  God, 
my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me?"  The  inference  is 
probably  wrong.  The  story  of  the  temptation  shows  how 
Jesus,  in  the  days  of  struggle  before  his  ministry,  used  the 
words  of  the  Scriptures  for  guidance  and  strength.  Here 
in  his  last  trial,  they  come  again  to  his  lips.  It  is  the 
twent}'-second  psalm  that  he  is  repeating.  But  the  psalm, 
of  which  these  evangelists  repeat  but  the  first  verse,  is  a 
song  of  faith  and  not  simply  a  cry  of  anguish: 

Our   fathers  trusted   in  thee : 

They  trusted,   and  thou  didst   deliver   them. 

They  cried  unto  thee,  and  were  delivered : 

They  trusted  in  thee,  and  were  not  put  to  shame. 


136  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

The  meaning  What  Jcsus  hopcd  for  from  his  death  was  not  wanting. 
It  did  for  men  what  his  life  alone  had  not  accomplished. 
The  cross,  symbol  of  shame  for  that  day  like  the  guillotine 
or  gallows  for  ours,  became  the  center  of  the  message  of  his 
disciples  and  the  symbol  of  honor  for  the  ages  following. 
From  the  first  men  saw  in  his  death,  as  did  he,  not  a  tragic 
accident  or  the  triumph  of  his  foes,  but  some  great  purpose 
of  God.  It  wrought  the  sense  of  sin  and  the  feeling  of  peni- 
tence which  he  had  wished  to  call  forth.  It  stood  forth  as 
the  crowning  deed  of  his  love  in  which  they  saw  the  love 
and  mercy  of  God.  It  fixed  forever  the  ideal  of  his  life 
as  that  of  love  and  service,  and  the  ideal  of  the  Christian 
life  for  those  who  were  to  follow  him. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Before  the  priests:    Mark  14.  53-65;  Luke  22.  63-71. 

Before  Pilate  and  Herod:    Mark  15.  1-20;  Luke  23.  1-25. 

Crucifixion  and  burial:  Mark  15.  21-47;  Matt  27.  32-66;  Luke 
23.  26-56. 

Write  briefly  in  your  own  words  the  story  of  the  trial,  incorpo- 
rating the  items  from  the  three  synoptic  Gospels. 


PART  III 
THE  JERUSALEM  CHURCH 


137 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  CHURCH 

What  Jesus'  enemies  were  concerned  about  was  not  The  plan  of 
simply  to  wreak  vengeance  upon  an  individual  who  had  of-  J®^"^'  ^°^^ 
fended  them.  They  wanted  to  put  a  stop  to  a  movement 
that  threatened  to  endanger  their  position  as  leaders.  The 
simplest  way  was  to  kill  the  Master.  His  disciples,  a 
group  of  enthusiasts  without  training  or  standing,  could 
very  well  be  disregarded.  None  of  them  were,  therefore, 
molested.  When  they  had  gibbeted  the  leader  they  felt  the 
matter  was  disposed  of. 

So,  indeed,  it  seemed.  Nothing  is  more  certain  than  Disheartened 
the  fact  that  the  disciples  were  utterly  perplexed  and  dis-  '®"p*^ 
heartened  by  the  sudden  events  of  the  day.  Face  to  face 
with  the  terrible  reality,  Jesus'  warnings  had  little  effect. 
A  Messiah  seized  by  his  foes,  humiliated,  scourged,  bound 
to  a  cross — how  could  such  a  thing  be?  They  could  not 
think  of  him  as  the  Messiah  now,  but  as  "a  prophet  mighty 
in  deed  and  word  before  God  and  all  the  people."  They 
had  "hoped  that  it  was  he  who  should  redeem  Israel,"  but 
their  dream  was  over  (Luke  24.  13-21). 

Just  as  certain,  however,  is  the  fact  that  almost  at  once  The  sudden 
a  radical  change  took  place.  The  scattered  company  gath-  ^^^^^^ 
ered  together.  The  perplexity  was  gone.  Instead  there 
were  men  with  a  clear  and  confident  conviction.  The  fear 
had  vanished.  In  the  city  in  which  their  ^Master  was  killed, 
before  the  people  that  had  seen  his  shameful  death,  they 
were  ready  to  speak  their  faith  in  him.  And  it  was  not 
simply  an  old  faith  regained;  there  was  a  courage  and  a 
joy  that  surpassed  the  old  days.  They  were  not  mere  fol- 
lowers now,  they  were  leaders.  And  all  this  was  not  a 
passing  enthusiasm.     Under  tlicse  men  as  leaders  a  great 

139 


140 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The 
resurrection 


Differences 
in  the  records 


movement  began  which  in  a  couple  of  generations  spread 
throughout  the  whole  empire.  What  was  the  cause  of  this 
transformation  ? 

The  first  cause  was  the  conviction  that  Jesus  was  living. 
That  was  the  center  and  foundation  of  all  else.  From 
all  the  New  Testament  writings  that  touch  this  period  we 
hear  the  same  word :  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead  on  the  third 
day  and  appeared  to  his  disciples.  The  earliest  and  most 
important  record  is  that  of  Paul  in  his  first  letter  to  the 
Corinthians,  written  some  twenty  years  after  Jesus'  death. 
Paul  undoubtedly  received  this  word  directly  from  Peter, 
whom  he  visited  at  Jerusalem  only  a  few  years  after  Jesus' 
death  (Gal  i.  i8).  He  declares  to  the  Corinthians  that 
what  he  preached  to  them  was  the  common  faith  of  the 
church  as  he  himself  had  received  it — "that  Christ  died 
for  our  sins  according  to  the  Scriptures ;  and  that  he  was 
buried ;  and  that  he  hath  been  raised  the  third  day  accord- 
ing to  the  Scriptures ;  and  that  he  appeared  to  Cephas ;  then 
to  the  twelve;  then  he  appeared  to  above  five  hundred 
brethren  at  once,  of  whom  the  greater  part  remain  until 
now,  but  some  are  fallen  asleep ;  then  he  appeared  to  James ; 
then  to  all  the  apostles;  and  last  of  all,  as  to  the  child  un- 
timely born,  he  appeared  to  me  also"  (i  Cor  15.  3-8).  The 
other  reports  are  found  in  the  book  of  Acts  and  the  four 
Gospels. 

When  we  come  to  a  closer  stud}'  of  these  records  we  are 
met  by  two  questions :  How  are  we  to  reconcile  the  apparent 
differences  in  these  accounts ;  and,  How  are  we  to  conceive 
the  manner  of  the  resurrection  and  of  these  appearances? 
It  may  be  stated  at  the  very  first  that  only  by  violence  can 
these  accounts  be  harmonized  in  their  details,  Matthew 
gives  the  appearances  in  Galilee,  Luke  in  Jerusalem,  while 
the  last  part  of  Mark's  Gospel  has  been  unfortunately  lost 
to  us,  as  the  note  given  in  our  American  Standard  Revised 
Edition  indicates.  There  have  been  differences  of  inter- 
pretation likewise  as  to  the  manner  of  the  resurrection  and 


BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  CHURCH 


141 


the  appearances.  Our  oldest  witness,  Paul,  lays  no  stress 
upon  the  physical.  He  believes,  of  course,  in  a  bodily 
resurrection,  but  he  will  not  dogmatize  about  the  nature 
of  that  body.  He  seems  to  put  Jesus'  resurrection  in 
line  with  the  resurrection  of  the  saints,  of  which  he  says: 
"It  is  sown  a  natural  body;  it  is  raised  a  spiritual  body" 
(i  Cor  15.  20-53).  In  the  same  way  Paul  classes  Jesus' 
appearance  to  him  on  the  way  to  Damascus  with  that  to 
the  disciples  after  his  resurrection.  Luke,  on  the  other 
hand,  emphasizes  the  physical,  even  to  the  extent  of  pic- 
turing Jesus  as  eating  (Luke  24.  39-43). 

To  the  first  question  we  may  answer :  While  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  reconcile  these  differences  now,  neither  is  it  neces- 
sary. In  the  years  that  elapsed  between  these  events  and 
the  writing  of  the  Gospels,  it  was  inevitable  that  such  dis- 
crepancies should  arise.  The  fundamental  fact,  however,  is 
clearly  held  by  all  these  writers.  The  very  discrepancies 
emphasize  the  central  agreement.  Nor  is  it  important  to  be 
able  to  answer  the  second  question.  The  actual  issue  is 
whether  we  believe  in  the  reality  of  the  spiritual  world. 
If  the  physical  is  all  there  is  of  life,  then  these  stories  are 
mere  hallucinations.  But  if  the  real  Hfe  be  the  personal 
and  spiritual,  then  the  manner  of  these  appearances  is  not 
vital,  and  to  attempt  to  decide  is  simply  to  try  to  answer 
the  unanswerable.  The  one  clear  fact,  without  which  the 
wonderful  story  of  early  Christianity  is  a  mere  riddle,  is  the 
fact  that  these  disciples  were  following  a  living  Lord,  and 
not  a  dead  and  defeated  leader. 

What  this  conviction  meant  that  Jesus  was  living  we 
cannot  overestimate.  If  he  were  living,  then  he  was  the 
Messiah,  then  his  death  was  part  of  the  will  and  plan  of 
God.  Then  too  Jesus  would  come  again  and  establish  his 
Kingdom  upon  the  earth.  It  is  this  confidence  in  the  second 
appearing  of  Jesus  and  in  his  final  triumph,  that  fills  the 
whole  early  church  with  hope  and  joy.  The  Christians  are 
those  who  wait  for  the  appearing  of  their  Lord. 


The  central 
question 


What  the 
faith  meant 


142 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The 

resurrection 
and  the 
ground  of 
faith 


The  gift 
of  the  Spirit 


What  is  the  relation  of  these  narratives  of  the  resur- 
rection to  Christian  faith  to-day?  Are  they  not  its  foun- 
dation? And  if  so,  are  not  these  discrepancies  a  serious 
hindrance  ?  To  this  we  must  answer :  The  conviction  of  the 
living  Christ  is  central  for  Christian  faith  to-day.  But  the 
foundation  of  that  conviction  is  not  primarily  the  story  of 
the  appearances.  It  is,  rather,  the  personality  of  Christ 
itself ;  it  is  this  life  that  shines  forth  in  the  Gospels,  con- 
vincing us  of  its  reality  and  of  the  God  whom  it  shows 
forth,  and  proving  its  reality  by  what  it  did  for  the  early 
church  and  for  the  generations  since,  and  by  what  it  will 
do  to-day  for  those  who  surrender  to  it.  The  real  founda- 
tion is  not  a  historical  argument  or  proof ;  it  is  this  personal 
moral  conviction  and  experience. 

Next  to  their  conviction  of  the  living  Christ,  there  is  an- 
other great  fact  that  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian church  and  accounts  for  the  transformation  of  these 
men.  That  was  the  gift  of  the  Spirit.  These  disciples  be- 
lieved that  their  Lord  would  some  time  return  in  glory,  but 
their  religion  was  not  simply  one  of  waiting.  Their  Master 
was  the  exalted  Christ  at  the  right  hand  of  God  and  he 
had  given  to  them  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Spirit  of  God 
was  in  their  midst  and  in  their  hearts  now.  God  was  not 
a  doctrine,  he  was  a  presence.  Religion  was  not  a  mere 
duty,  it  was  a  life  which  they  already  possessed.  There  is 
a  spirit  of  enthusiasm  that  fills  these  pages  of  Acts,  a  spirit 
of  joy  and  a  sense  of  power.  "And  day  by  day,  continuing 
steadfastly  with  one  accord  in  the  temple,  and  breaking 
bread  at  home,  they  took  their  food  with  gladness  and 
singleness  of  heart,  praising  God,  and  having  favor  with 
all  the  people.  And  they  were  all  filled  with  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  they  spake  the  word  of  God  with  boldness.  And 
the  multitudes  of  them  that  believed  were  of  one  heart  and 
soul:  and  not  one  of  them  said  that  aught  of  the  things 
which  he  possessed  was  his  own;  but  they  had  all  things 
in  common.    And  with  great  power  gave  the  apostles  their 


BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  CHURCH  143 

witness  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Lord  Jesus:  and  great 
grace  was  upon  them  all"  (Acts  2.  43,  46,  47;  4.  S^SS)- 

This  full  measure  of  enthusiasm  and  power  had  not  Pentecost 
been  granted  the  disciples  at  once.  Nor  did  they  begin 
their  ptiblic  work  immediately  after  the  assurance  that 
Jesus  was  risen.  They  were  to  wait  together  in  Jerusalem 
in  prayer  until  they  were  prepared  for  the  great  task.  "Ye 
shall  receive  power,  when  the  Hoh'  Spirit  is  come  upon 
you :  and  ye  shall  be  my  witnesses  both  in  Jerusalem,  and  in 
all  Judaea  and  Samaria,  and  unto  the  uttermost  part  of  the 
earth"  (Acts  i.  8).  This  was  the  word  of  the  risen  Christ 
to  them.  Luke  describes  how  he  was  seen  by  the  dis- 
ciples for  the  last  time  and  then  taken  from  them  (Acts  i. 
6-1 1  ;  Luke  24.  51).  The  idea  of  an  ascension  distinct  from 
the  resurrection  appears  only  with  Luke,  not  being  men- 
tioned by  Paul  or  in  the  other  Gospels.  Obedient  to  the 
word,  the  disciples  gathered  together  daily  in  prayer  in 
Jerusalem,  one  hundred  and  twenty  of  them  in  number. 
Pentecost  was  the  name  given  by  Greek-speaking  Jews,  or 
Hellenists,  to  the  feast  that  came  on  the  fiftieth  day  after 
the  passover.  The  climax  of  their  waiting  came  on  that 
day,  "And  when  the  day  of  Pentecost  was  now  come,  they 
were  all  together  in  one  place.  And  suddenly  there  came 
from  heaven  a  sound  as  of  the  rushing  of  a  mighty  wind, 
and  it  filled  all  the  house  where  they  were  sitting.  And 
there  appeared  unto  them  tongues  parting  asunder,  as  of 
fire ;  and  it  sat  upon  each  one  of  them.  And  they  were 
all  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  began  to  speak  with 
other  tongues,  as  the  Spirit  gave  them  utterance"  (Acts 
2.  1-4). 

For  Christian  thought  the  word  "Pentecost"  means  now  The  two 
not  a  Jewish  but  a  Christian  festival.    The  name  commonly   ^^^^ 
used  in  English  is  Whitsunday.    The  day  has  been  called  the 
birthday  of  the  Christian  Church.     That  is  going  too  far. 
That  day  might  be  fixed  at  the  time  when  Peter  and  the 
others  first  confessed  Jesus  as  the  Christ.     But  Pentecost 


144 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


When  was 
the  Spirit 
given? 


The  gift  of 
tongues 


was  the  beginning  of  Christianity  as  a  mihtant  and  con- 
quering fellowship.  The  conviction  that  Jesus  was  living 
and  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  go  together  as  the  two  great 
facts  that  explain  the  being  and  power  of  the  early  church. 
The  first  named  gave  the  church  its  great  hope ;  the  second 
added  to  the  hope  for  the  future  an  actual  possession  for 
the  present.  While  they  still  looked  forward,  they  were 
nevertheless  conscious  of  a  rule  and  presence  of  God  in  the 
world  and  in  their  life.  Religion  was  a  possession,  not  a 
mere  hope. 

Two  questions  arise  in  connection  with  Luke's  description. 
According  to  the  accounts  in  Acts,  the  Spirit  had  not  been 
given  to  the  disciples  before.  This  is  not  the  uniform  New 
Testament  conception.  The  fourth  Gospel  declares  that  on 
the  very  first  day  of  the  resurrection  Jesus  breathed  upon 
his  disciples  and  said,  "Receive  ye  the  Holy  Spirit"  (John 
20.  22).  More  important  is  the  word  that  Jesus  spoke  to 
Peter  after  his  confession  at  Csesarea  Philippi:  "Flesh  and 
blood  hath  not  revealed  it  unto  thee,  but  thy  Father  who  is 
in  heaven"  (Matt  16.  17).  It  was  God's  Spirit  who  had 
shown  this  to  Peter.  All  true  life  in  men  is  due  to  the 
Spirit  of  God.  In  this  case  it  was  simply  an  unusual  ex- 
perience under  unusual  conditions,  marking  the  beginning 
of  a  new  epoch. 

The  gift  of  tongues  of  which  Luke  speaks  is  one  that 
we  find  mentioned  elsewhere,  especially  in  Paul's  letters. 
Luke  conceives  it  as  the  ability  to  speak  in  foreign  lan- 
guages. Visiting  Jews  in  Jerusalem,  coming  from  many 
countries,  were  attracted  by  what  had  happened  here  in  Pen- 
tecost, and  as  they  came  together  Luke  declares  they  heard 
the  disciples  speaking  the  varied  tongues  which  these  vis- 
itors represented.  Paul's  description  of  the  gift  of  tongues 
is  quite  different  (i  Cor  14.  1-33).  It  was  a  rapt  ecstatic 
utterance,  coming  from  men  under  strong  spiritual  excite- 
ment. Of  themselves  these  utterances  did  not  convey  any 
meaning,  either  to  Christians  or  to  others.  Outsiders  coming 


BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  CHURCH  145 

in  and  listening  would  naturally  think  these  people  mad ;  and 
while  Paul  believed  it  to  be  the  work  of  the  Spirit,  he 
rated  it  below  that  earnest  but  ordered  and  intelligible  speak- 
ing which  he  called  prophesying. 

If  there  is  any  contradiction  here,  we  must  give  Paul  the  Was  it  speech 
preference.  He  is  a  witness  at  first  hand,  writing  of  what  lan^ag^? 
he  himself  has  seen  and  known.  Luke,  in  these  first  chapters, 
is  using  material  that  has  been  handed  down  to  him.  Even 
in  Luke's  narrative  there  are  some  things  that  suggest  that 
what  occurred  is  not  different  from  what  we  find  with  Paul. 
If  these  visitors  had  heard  the  disciples  speaking  in  foreign 
languages,  they  would  not  have  charged  them  with  drunken- 
ness (Acts  2.  13).  Peter,  replying  to  this  charge,  makes  no 
reference  to  the  foreign  speech  at  all.  No  one  can  say  that 
such  a  miracle  could  not  have  occurred.  Within  Christian 
writings,  however,  miracles  must  be  judged  by  the  principles 
of  the  Christian  faith  and  according  to  their  moral  meaning 
and  spiritual  value.  Such  a  gift  of  foreign  speech  would 
have  had  two  possible  meanings,  one  to  convince  these 
outsiders,  the  other  to  aid  the  disciples  in  later  foreign 
missionary  work.  It  failed  to  do  the  first  and  we  find  no 
reference  anywhere  to  the  latter.  It  was  not  the  foreign 
speech,  but  the  preaching  from  a  heart  filled  with  the 
Spirit  like  Peter's,  that  won  the  many  that  were  added 
that  day. 

Peter's  speech  shows  that  the  early  church  saw  in  this  The  spirit 
experience  the  fulfillment  of  the  prophecies,  found  not  only  ^^  ^^^ 
with  Joel  2.  28,  29  but  elsewhere,  which  set  forth  the  gift  of 
the  Spirit  as  the  mark  of  the  Messianic  age.  For  many 
years  Israel  had  felt  herself  without  the  living  voice  of  a 
prophet.  God  was  far  away.  Men  had  only  his  laws.  In 
the  new  age  it  was  to  be  different ;  God  was  to  speak  again 
with  men  and  dwell  with  them.  It  was  not  merely,  then, 
that  they  had  seen  their  risen  Lord  and  that  they  rejoiced 
in  the  hope  of  his  coming ;  tiiey  had  with  them  day  by  day 
this  witness  and  inspiration  of  God's  presence. 


146  NEW  TEST/VMENT   HISTORY 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

As  to  the  resurrection,  read  for  general  statements  i  Cor.  15.  3-8; 
Acts  I.  i-ii. 

Appearances  in  Jerusalem:  Matt  28.   i-io;  Luke  24.   1-53. 

Appearances  in  Galilee :  Matt  28.  16-20. 

The  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit:  Acts  i.  12-14;  2.  1-21. 

Compare  i  Cor  14.  1-33  as  to  the  speaking  with  tongues ;  note 
the  points  of  likeness  and  difference  between  this  and  the  picture  in 
Acts  2. 


CHAPTER    XXII 
THE    FAITH    AND    THE    MESSAGE 

The  book  of  Acts  is  the  principal  source  of  our  knowledge  The  book 
of  this  earliest  period,  a  work  written  some  fifty  years  after 
the  death  of  Christ.  As  with  most  of  the  New  Testament 
writings  outside  the  Epistles,  the  book  itself  does  not  give 
the  name  of  the  author ;  but  early  tradition  assigns  this  and 
the  third  Gospel  to  Luke,  a  physician  and  for  some  time  com- 
panion of  Paul  on  his  journeys.  As  in  the  Gospel,  the 
author  uses  various  sources  at  his  command.  Only  a  small 
part  of  the  material  comes  from  direct  personal  observation. 
This  latter  is  included  in  what  are  called  the  *'we  sections," 
such  as  the  journey  to  Rome,  where  the  pronoun  "we"  is 
constantly  used.  These  parts  are  vivid,  full  of  detail,  and 
of  the  greatest  value.  The  earlier  portions  are  of  a  more 
general  character,  and  show  a  tendency  to  idealize  which 
is  very  natural  with  one  who  looked  back  with  reverence  to 
those  first  days. 

The  book  shows  a  definite  plan  and  much  skill  in  composi-  Plan  and 
tion.  Its  purpose  is  to  show  how  the  gospel,  rejected  by  all 
but  a  small  number  of  the  Jews,  spread  throughout  the 
Roman  world  from  Antioch  to  Rome.  It  is  not  a  general 
history  of  the  church,  nor  is  it  described  correctly  by  the 
name  that  the  church  has  given  it,  "The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles."  There  were  other  apostles  that  worked  besides 
Peter  and  Paul,  but  their  work  did  not  bear  upon  the  plan  of 
the  author,  and  so  he  passes  them  by.  No  doubt  he  was 
governed  in  this  also  by  the  materials  that  he  had  at  hand. 
Whatever  the  reason,  it  must  be  constantly  remembered 
that  this  book  gives  us  onl}-  scenes  from  the  early  church, 
not  a  full  history.  We  know  nothing  of  the  beginnings  in 
Galilee  or  in  Rome,  nothing  of  how  the  great  church   in 

147 


scope 


148 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  disciples 
remain  Jews 


What  was 
new:  Jesus 


Africa  arose.  We  can  see  that  such  a  man  as  Barnabas 
had  a  long  hfe  of  active  service,  but  we  know  only  a  frag- 
ment of  his  work,  and  then  merely  because  he  touches 
Paul.  Even  of  Paul  himself,  there  is  less  than  a  decade  of 
his  life  for  which  we  have  anything  like  a  full  record. 

The  conviction  that  their  Master  was  living  was  what 
brought  together  the  scattered  disciples.  But  the  little  com- 
pany that  gathered  thus  did  not  think  of  themselves  as 
forming  a  new  church  or  beginning  a  new  religion.  In 
their  own  mind  they  were  still  good  and  loyal  Jews.  They 
did  not  give  up  any  of  their  old  faith  or  separate  themselves 
from  their  own  people.  They  went  to  the  temple  at  the 
hour  of  prayer.  They  spoke  in  the  temple  about  Jesus  to 
those  who  would  listen.  They  kept  the  laws  of  the  old 
religion  as  they  had  always  done.  Peter  was  shocked  at 
the  suggestion  that  he  should  eat  meat  that  was  not  cere- 
monially clean.  They  were  astonished  when  the  report  was 
brought  back  that  uncircumcised  Gentiles  (that  is,  Gentiles 
who  were  not  even  proselytes  to  the  Jewish  faith)  had 
believed  and  received  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  clear  that  these 
first  disciples  had  not  yet  grasped  the  full  meaning  of  what 
had  come  to  them. 

What,  then,  was  new  in  their  faith  and  their  message? 
We  may  answer  in  a  word :  Jesus  the  Christ.  "Jesus  of 
Nazareth,  a  man  approved  of  God  unto  you  by  mighty  works 
and  wonders,  him,  being  delivered  up  by  the  determinate 
counsel  and  foreknowledge  of  God,  ye  did  crucify  and  slay. 
The  things  which  God  foreshadowed  by  the  mouth  of  all  the 
prophets,  he  thus  fulfilled.  This  Jesus  did  God  raise  up. 
God  hath  made  him  both  Lord  and  Christ.  Being  by  the 
right  hand  of  God  exalted,  and  having  received  of  the 
Father  the  promise  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  hath  poured 
forth  this,  which  ye  see  and  hear.  Repent  that  your  sins 
may  be  blotted  out ;  that  he  may  send  the  Christ,  who  hath 
been  appointed  for  you,  even  Jesus ;  whom  the  heaven  must 
receive  until  the  times  of  the  restoration  of  all  things." 


THE  FAITH  AND  THE  MESSAGE  149 

These  words  are  taken  from  the  reports  of  Peter's  speeches  The  faith  and 

^N         rr^i  •  •  1     .  ii        its  defense 

(Acts  2.  14-40;  3.  12-26).  They  give  us  in  substance  the 
faith  of  this  early  church — the  message  which  they  preached, 
and  the  answer  to  the  taunts  of  their  foes  who  mocked  at 
the  idea  of  a  Messiah  that  had  been  crucified.  We  may 
state  this  faith  as  follows :  ( i )  Jesus  lives ;  God  has  raised 
him  from  the  grave.  (2)  The  resurrection  is  the  evidence 
that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah ;  God  has  made  him  Christ  and 
Saviour  by  raising  him  from  the  dead.  (3)  His  sufferings 
and  death  were  no  accident  or  defeat,  but  according  to  the 
purpose  of  God  and  the  word  of  the  Scriptures ;  his  death 
was  for  the  sins  of  men.  (4)  This  Jesus  is  coming  again 
as  the  Messiah,  when  he  shall  judge  men  and  shall  set  up 
his  kingdom ;  repent,  therefore,  and  make  ready.  (5)  Those 
who  repent  and  believe  shall  receive  forgiveness  of 
their  sins  and  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  this  gift,  be- 
stowed by  Jesus,  is  the  second  evidence  that  he  is  the 
Messiah. 

All  these  conceptions  center  in  Jesus.  Jesus  lives ;  Jesus  ci»nst  the 
is  the  Messiah ;  Jesus  died  for  men ;  Jesus  is  coming  again ; 
Jesus  gives  the  Spirit.  Jesus  is  the  creed  of  the  early  church. 
His  personality  and  his  mastery  of  these  disciples  explain 
all  else.  The  resurrection  is  important,  but  only  as  the 
resurrection  of  this  Jesus  whom  they  had  known.  He  fills 
the  whole  horizon  of  their  thought  and  faith.  He  deter- 
mines their  thought  of  God :  God  is  one  whose  spirit  is  like 
that  of  Jesus ;  he  is  "the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ."  He  determines  their  hope  of  the  future,  the  hope 
that  filled  the  early  church  with  confidence  and  joy ;  Jesus 
was  to  come  and  bring  the  new  heaven  and  the  new  earth. 
He  determines  their  thought  of  religion.  It  is  true  they 
still  go  to  the  temple  and  keep  the  old  laws.  But  that  was 
the  outer  form  of  their  life.  His  spirit  and  his  teachings 
rule  them;  and  we  see  this  in  the  life  of  the  new  com- 
munity: its  reverence  and  joy,  its  spirit  of  brotherhood  and 
good  will. 


I50 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


What  the 
Gospels  show 


The  oral 
gospel 


The  interest 
of  the 
disciples 


There  are  other  writings  besides  Acts  which  throw  light 
upon  the  thought  and  faith  of  the  first  community;  these 
are  the  first  three  Gospels.  Our  present  Gospels  were  not 
written  during  this  time,  but  the  beginnings  reach  back  to 
these  first  years.  They  show  us  how  deeply  the  disciples 
appreciated  the  living  memory  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  They 
did  not  simply  think  of  a  risen  Christ  or  dream  of  his  return. 
They  cherished  his  word.  They  recalled  the  stories  of  his 
deeds  of  mercy  and  love.    They  kept  alive  his  spirit. 

At  the  beginning  there  were  no  written  Gospels.  Every- 
thing was  passed  on  by  word  of  mouth.  The  Oriental  has 
always  had  a  marvelous  memory  for  words.  We  do  not 
have  it  because  we  do  not  need  it  in  this  day  of  books.  There 
were  present  in  the  first  community  not  only  the  twelve  but 
others  who  had  been  witnesses  "concerning  all  that  Jesus 
began  both  to  do  and  to  teach."  The  living  testimony  of 
these  men  would  naturally  be  prized  above  any  writings. 
For  the  future  there  was  no  concern,  since  they  thought 
the  return  of  the  Lord  so  near  at  hand. 

The  first  interest  of  these  disciples  would  be  in  telling 
the  story  of  Jesus'  life  and  deeds.  Their  preaching  to  others 
would  naturally  begin  with  this,  just  as  Peter  does  at  the 
house  of  Cornelius:  "J^^us  of  Nazareth,  how  God  anointed 
him  with  the  Holy  Spirit  and  with  power:  who  went  about 
doing  good,  and  healing  all  that  were  oppressed  of  the  devil ; 
for  God  was  with  him"  (Acts  lo.  38).  We  can  see  here 
what  points  were  emphasized :  the  anointing  with  the  Spirit 
at  his  baptism,  his  deeds  of  healing,  especially  with  the 
demoniacs,  and  whatever  else  showed  his  power  and  so 
indicated  that  he  was  the  Messiah.  The  story  would  natur- 
ally end  with  his  death,  which  was  for  the  salvation  of  men, 
and  his  resurrection,  which  proved  him  to  be  the  Messiah 
of  God.  The  words  of  Jesus  would  be  just  as  carefully 
preserved  as  the  story  of  his  deeds.  But  while  the  story  of 
his  life  was  used  in  the  preaching  and  winning  of  converts, 
the  words  of  Jesus  were  used  especially  in  the  teaching  of 


THE  FAITH  AND  THE  :MESSAGE  151 

the   disciples   who   had   been   won.      Such   a   word   would 
always  be  decisive  so  far  as  faith  and  duty  were  concerned. 

These  stories  of  Jesus*  deeds  and  collections  of  his  words  The  sources 
are  what  appear  a  generation  later  in  our  Gospels.  They 
show  us  more  than  anything  else  how  the  personality  of 
Jesus  stamped  itself  upon  these  disciples.  The  narrative 
is  so  simple  that  it  is  easy  to  miss  its  unique  value  and  mean- 
ing. The  Gospels  nowhere  try  to  describe  or  analyze  or 
define.  They  are  simply  witnesses.  They  let  Jesus  speak 
to  us  and  walk  before  us.  And  so  thej^  bring  us  what  no 
description  and  no  definition  of  any  creed  could  bring:  the 
living  Christ  himself.  It  makes  little  difference  just  how 
long  it  was  before  these  oral  traditions  were  set  down  in 
writing,  or  how  they  were  combined  in  our  present  Gospels ; 
these  words  and  this  picture  carry  in  themselves  the  con- 
viction of  their  reality. 

We  must  read  these  Gospeis  to  understand  what  the  early  The  witness 
church  was  thinking  of,  and  not  merely  Paul's  letters  and  f°jtjj°  ^^^  ^ 
the  book  of  Acts.  They  were  telling  men  not  simply  of  the 
resurrection,  but  how  Jesus  had  mercy  upon  the  demoniacs, 
how  he  fed  the  hungry  and  blessed  little  children,  and  how 
he  said  to  men,  "Your  sins  are  forgiven."  These  disciples 
may  have  kept  the  old  law,  but  we  must  remember  that  it 
was  they  who  gathered  the  sayings  like  those  of  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  and  handed  them  down.  They  told  one 
another  the  story  of  the  good  Samaritan,  of  the  righteous- 
ness that  was  more  than  that  of  the  Pharisees,  of  the  poor 
in  spirit  and  the  meek  and  merciful  who  were  to  inherit  tiie 
earth,  and  of  the  love  that  was  to  be  like  God's  love  and 
go  out  to  the  evil  and  the  good.  No  one  of  the  stories  of 
Acts  tells  us  so  much  of  the  real  spirit  of  the  first  disciples 
as  this. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Read   Peter's  speeches,  Acts  2.    14-40;   3.    11-26;   and   the   prayer 
of  the  disciples,  Acts  4.  23-31, 


152  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

Make  a  list  of  the  names  or  descriptive  titles  used  in  referring 
to  Jesus  in  these  passages. 

Read  Psa  22  and  69,  and  Isa  52.  13  to  53.  12. 

From  these  passages  select  such  verses  as  might  have  seemed 
to  the  early  church  to  describe  and  foretell  the  sufferings  and  death 
of  Jesus,  or  give  any  reason  for  the  same. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 
THE    LIFE    OF    THE    FIRST    COMMUNITY 

What  impresses  us  most  in  the  life  of  the  first  com-  Fellowship 
mimity  is  its  spirit  of  fellowship.  It  is  the  picture  of  a 
family  that  meets  us  here.  "The  multitude  of  them  that 
believed  were  of  one  heart  and  soul.  And  they  continued 
steadfastly  in  the  apostles'  teaching  and  fellowship,  in  the 
breaking  of  bread  and  the  prayers."  They  called  each 
other  brother  and  sister.  They  greeted  one  another  with  a 
kiss.  In  larger  or  smaller  groups  they  took  frequent,  if 
not  daily,  meals  together.  It  was  a  fellowship  of  life  as  well 
as  faith  and  worship.  They  cared  for  the  poor.  "Not  one 
of  them  said  that  aught  of  the  things  which  he  possessed 
was  his  own.  Neither  was  there  among  them  any  that 
lacked." 

Some  of  the  phrases  which  Luke  uses  in  this  narrative  Not 
have  led  certain  students  to  believe  that  this  was  a  case  of  *=°™™"°»^" 
strict  community  of  goods,  or  communism.  He  says :  "All 
that  believed  were  together,  and  had  all  things  in  common ; 
and  they  sold  their  possessions  and  goods,  and  parted  them 
to  all,  according  as  any  man  had  need"  (Acts  2.  44,  45). 
A  little  scrutiny  will  show  that  Luke  is  generalizing  here 
from  particular  instances,  and  that  there  was  no  fixed  rule. 
John  Mark's  mother,  evidently  a  prominent  member  of  the 
community,  retained  her  home  (Acts  12.  12).  Peter  defi- 
nitely tells  Ananias  that  he  was  under  no  necessity  of  selling 
his  property.  What  we  have  here  is  not  a  formal  order, 
but  a  great  spiritual  impulse,  a  movement  of  spontaneous 
love  and  devotion  which  impelled  men  to  share  what  they 
had  with  all  that  were  in  need.  Probably  the  feeling  that 
the  coming  of  the  Lord  was  near  at  hand  had  its  influence 
also.    One  man  is  noted  especially,  because  he  sold  a  piece 

153 


154 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  care  for 
the  poor 


Gatherings 
for  worship 


The  worship 
free 


of  ground  and  i^ave  over  the  proceeds.  It  was  this  that 
was  the  undoing-  of  two  other  disciples.  They  saw  the 
esteem  and  honor  that  came  to  Barnabas  through  his 
generous  deed  and  coveted  it  for  tliemselves.  So  they  sold 
their  property  too.  They  could  not,  however,  bear  to  give 
over  all  the  proceeds.  They  wanted  to  have  the  applause 
for  generosity  and  yet  keep  some  of  the  money.  Their 
sudden  and  tragic  end  made  a  deep  impression. 

Whatever  there  was  of  communism  here  disappeared  very 
soon,  and  we  do  not  hear  of  it  elsewhere.  But  the  churches 
elsewhere  followed  this  first  example  in  the  care  of  the  poor. 
Everywhere  this  same  spirit  of  love  appeared.  Back  of  the 
need  of  the  individual  believer  there  stood  always  the  re- 
sources of  the  whole  community.  At  Jerusalem  there  seemed 
to  be  special  occasion  for  such  help.  Part  of  it  may  have 
been  due  to  the  fact  that  the  disciples  that  came  from 
Galilee  would  have  lost  their  regular  means  of  support.  At 
any  rate,  it  is  one  of  Paul's  special  tasks  later  on  to  send 
gifts  to  the  mother  church. 

Of  formal  services  of  worship  we  read  nothing.  The 
disciples  participated  in  the  worship  of  the  temple.  Their 
own  gatherings  were  in  their  homes.  We  read  that  they 
"continued  steadfastly  in  the  apostles'  teaching  and  fellow- 
ship, in  the  breaking  of  bread  and  the  prayers."  This  sug- 
gests the  nature  of  their  gatherings.  The  teaching  would 
concern  the  words  and  deeds  of  Jesus,  including  the  vision 
of  the  risen  Lord,  and  the  exposition  of  Old  Testament 
passages  which  foretold  all  this.  Then,  as  they  were  moved 
by  the  Spirit,  there  would  be  prayer  and  exhortation. 

All  the  worship  of  the  early  church  must  be  thought  of 
as  wholly  free  and  spontaneous.  These  disciples  were  Jews, 
and  so  accustomed  to  the  worship  of  the  synagogue.  That 
worship  was  informal  and  democratic,  giving  opportunity 
for  any  one  to  speak  who  had  a  message,  and  laying  special 
stress  upon  the  reading  of  Scriptures  and  teaching.  Besides 
this,  there  was  in  the  early  church  the  belief  in  the  gift  of 


LIFE  OF  THE  FIRST  COMMUNITY  155 

the  Spirit  as  belonging  to  all  disciples.  It  was  not  office  or 
education  that  determined  whether  one  should  speak  or  pray, 
but  the  impulse  of  the  Spirit. 

The  words  "breaking  of  bread"  have  a  religious  meaning  The  Lord'; 
here,  as  is  indicated  by  their  connection  with  prayers.  The 
reference  is  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  as  in  Acts  20.  7,  1 1.  How 
the  Lord's  Supper  was  celebrated  we  do  not  know.  It  seems 
that  here,  as  later  at  Corinth  (i  Cor  11.  20-22),  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  a  part  of  a  common  meal  which  was  taken 
together.  Apparently,  the  disciples  met  together  for  such 
meals  quite  frequently.  The  exact  form  of  ceremony  we 
cannot  tell.  If  we  follow  the  suggestion  of  Paul's  words 
written  but  a  score  of  years  later  (i  Cor  11.  23-25),  the 
leader  at  some  place  in  the  meal  took  a  loaf  of  bread  and 
broke  it,  repeating  the  words:  "The  Lord  Jesus  in  the  night 
in  which  he  was  betrayed  took  bread ;  and  when  he  had 
given  thanks,  he  brake  it,  and  said,  This  is  my  body,  which 
is  for  you :  this  do  in  remembrance  of  me."  The  broken 
bread  was  then  distributed  to  be  eaten  by  those  present. 
Then  the  leader  would  take  a  cup  of  wine  and  add:  "In  like 
manner  also  the  cup,  after  supper,  saying.  This  cup  is  the 
new  covenant  in  my  blood :  this  do,  as  often  as  ye  drink  it, 
in  remembrance  of  me."  Perhaps  at  first  they  used  the 
simpler  words  of  the  earliest  gospel :  with  the  bread,  "Take 
ye :  this  is  my  body" ;  and  with  the  wine,  "This  is  my  blood 
of  the  covenant,  which  is  poured  out  for  many." 

Besides  this  simple  service,  one  other  form  was  in  use  Baptism 
from  the  beginning,  that  of  baptism.  It  marked  the  recep- 
tion of  new  members  into  the  fellowship.  The  simple  form 
used  at  first  was  into  the  name,  or  upon  the  name,  of  Jesus. 
It  was  not  till  later  that  the  church  used  the  form  in  Matt 
28.  19,  "In  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of 
the  Holy  Spirit."  The  baptism  into  the  name  of  Jesus 
meant  that  the  believer  confessed  himself  as  belonging  to 
the  risen  Lord. 

How  was  the  early  church  organized?     Was  it  episco- 


^56 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  twelve 


The  seven 
and  the 
brothers 
of  Jesus 


palian  or  congregational?  Such  questions  do  not  apply  at 
this  period.  There  was  no  formal  organization  at  all.  There 
was  a  company  of  disciples,  and  they  had  their  leaders,  as  any 
such  company  will  have.  The  leaders  in  this  case  were 
very  naturally  the  twelve.  The  later  church  has  usually 
called  them  simply  the  apostles,  but  there  were  other  apostles 
besides  them.  Strictly  speaking,  the  apostles  were  the  men 
who  gave  their  time  wholly  to  missionary  work;  as  such 
they  were  the  founders  of  Christian  communities.  Paul  is 
one  of  them,  though  he  was  not  one  of  the  twelve.  In  i  Cor 
15-  5-  7>  he  mentions  first  the  twelve  and  then  the  apostles 
as  though  these  two  did  not  mean  the  same.  Barnabas  too 
is  an  apostle  (Acts  14.  14).  The  twelve  were,  of  course, 
of  the  number  of  the  apostles,  for  Jesus  had  chosen  them 
not  only  to  be  with  him  but  to  carry  his  message. 

This  seems  to  have  been  the  distinct  function  of  the 
twelve  at  Jerusalem.  They  were  witnesses,  teachers.  When 
one  was  to  be  selected  in  Judas's  place,  the  requirement  is 
put  forward  that  he  is  to  be  one  of  those  who  had  been 
associated  with  Jesus  and  so  could  be  a  witness  (Acts  i.  21, 
22).  But  the  apostles  did  not  choose  him.  It  was  the 
church  that  came  together  and  decided  as  to  the  choice  by 
means  of  lot.  The  twelve,  of  course,  exercised  other  leader- 
ship besides  that  of  teaching.  They  had  supervision  at 
first  of  the  poor  relief,  but  it  was  the  church,  and  not  the 
twelve,  that  selected  the  men  to  take  their  place  in  this. 
They  were  to  give  themselves  to  prayer  and  teaching  (Acts 
6.  4).  From  their  association  with  Jesus  and  selection  by 
him,  the  twelve  would  naturally  be  the  leaders  and  spokes- 
men of  the  community  in  general  matters. 

Besides  the  twelve  there  were  "the  seven,"  who  were  chosen 
to  look  after  the  daily  meals  for  the  poor.  Perhaps  this 
daily  ministration,  for  which  the  phrase  "serve  tables"  is 
also  used,  may  have  had  to  do  with  the  arranging  of  the 
daily  common  meals  for  the  whole  company.  The  seven  are 
not  called  deacons,  and  were  perhaps  only  a  provisional 


LIFE  OF  THE  FIRST  COMMUNITY  157 

committee.  One  other  name  becomes  more  and  more  promi- 
nent as  time  passes — James,  the  brother  of  Jesus.  The 
brothers  of  Jesus  had  not  believed  on  him  from  the  first. 
Indeed,  they  even  considered  him  beside  himself.  Paul 
tells  us  that  Jesus  appeared  to  his  brother  James  after  the 
resurrection,  and  the  brothers  of  Jesus  are  found  in  the 
early  church  almost  from  the  beginning.  Their  relation  to 
Jesus  would  naturally  win  for  them  special  regard.  With 
James,  however,  there  must  have  been  in  addition  a  strong 
gift  of  leadership.  Later  church  writers  speak  of  him  as 
the  first  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  but  we  read  nothing  of  any 
bishop  at  Jerusalem  or  of  the  election  of  James  to  this  or 
any  other  office. 

It  has  been  a  common  conception  that  these  first  disciples  a  brother- 
after  the  resurrection  met  together  and  organized  the  Chris-  organization 
tian  Church.  By  some  it  has  been  held  that  supreme 
authority  was  given  to  Peter  or  to  the  twelve,  or  that  during 
the  days  before  his  ascension  Jesus  gave  to  his  disciples  a 
divine  plan  of  organization.  What  has  just  been  noted  shows 
nothing  of  this  kind.  Strictly  speaking,  there  was  no  separate 
church  at  first,  only  a  community  of  disciples,  who  felt 
themselves  one,  but  still  counted  themselves  a  part  of  the 
Jewish  people.  The  twelve  were  not  church  officials,  and 
neither  Peter  alone  nor  they  all  together  exercised  any  su- 
preme authority.  They  were  teachers  and  witnesses  because 
they  had  been  with  Jesus.  When  a  step  of  importance  had 
to  be  taken,  the  body  of  disciples  took  it,  as  in  filling  Judas's 
place  or  appointing  the  seven.  There  was  no  plan  of  bishops 
and  elders  and  deacons  which  they  knew  of  as  a  law  for 
the  church.  What  Paul  says  later  describes  the  even  simpler 
life  of  these  first  days:  "Ye  are  the  body  of  Christ,  and 
severally  members  thereof.  And  God  hath  set  some  in  the 
church,  first  apostles,  second  prophets,  thirdly  teachers,  then 
miracles,  then  gifts  of  healings,  helps,  governments,  divers 
kinds  of  tongues"  (i  Cor  12.  28).  This  is  not  a  list  of 
offices  to  be  found  in  every  church.    These  disciples  formed 


158  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

a  brotherhood,  one  body  of  Christ  with  one  Spirit  in  them 
all,  and  in  the  life  of  that  brotherhood  they  all  took  part 
each  as  he  was  led  by  this  Spirit.  The  careful  organization 
of  the  church  was  to  come  later, 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING    AND    STUDY 
Read  Acts  i.  15-26;  2.  41-47;  4.  23  to  5.  11;  6.  1-6. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 
FROM    JEWISH    SECT   TO    CHRISTIAN    CHURCH 

The  most  interesting  question  in  New  Testament  history  Jewish  sect 
is,  How  did  the  Jewish  sect  become  the  Christian  Church? 
Here  at  the  beginning  stands  the  Httle  Christian  community 
at  Jerusalem.  Its  members  are  loyal  Jews.  They  have  a 
hope  and  a  life  which  other  Jews  have  not;  but  still  they 
think  of  themselves  as  Jews,  and  they  keep  the  rules  of  the 
religion  of  their  people.  They  wovild  have  welcomed  Gen- 
tiles that  might  have  come  to  them,  just  as  the  Jews  wel- 
comed such  converts.  But  they  would  have  expected  such 
converts  to  keep  the  Jewish  laws  of  religion  as  they  did ; 
in  other  words,  first  to  become  Jews.  In  a  brief  generation 
the  change  takes  place.  The  community  at  Jerusalem 
gives  place  to  the  church  of  the  empire.  Christianity  is, 
being  preached,  not  as  a  Jewish  hope,  but  as  good  news  for 
all  men.  Nothing  is  said  about  being  a  Jew  or  keeping 
Jewish  rules,  but  only  about  faith  in  Christ,  and  about 
living  a  new  life  of  love  in  the  Spirit  of  God.  It  is  Chris- 
tianity as  a  universal  and  spiritual  religion. 

This  is  the  greatest  crisis  in  the  life  of  Christianitv.  The  The  forces 
change  did  not  take  place  without  a  struggle.  Two  great  change 
forces  were  at  work  to  bring  it  about.  The  first  was  the 
pressure  of  outward  events,  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews, 
which  showed  the  disciples  that  the  new  was  really  dif- 
ferent from  the  old.  The  second  was  the  inner  force  of  the 
spirit  of  the  new  religion  itself.  This  was  the  main  cause 
in  the  change.  It  was  this  spirit,  working  through  men 
like  Stephen  and  Barnabas  and  Paul,  that  made  the  new 
faith  a  world  faith. 

The  first  years  of  the  Christian  community  at  Jerusalem  a  time 
were,  on  the  whole,  a  period  of  peace.     Luke  reports  only   "*  ^^^'^^ 

159 


i6o  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

two  cases  of  persecution.  The  first  instance  occurred  in 
connection  with  the  heahng  of  a  lame  man  at  the  temple 
by  Peter  and  John.  Attracted  by  the  event,  the  people 
gathered  together  and  were  addressed  by  the  apostles,  who 
called  them  in  the  name  of  Jesus  to  repent  and  look  for- 
ward to  the  coming  of  Jesus  as  Messiah  to  restore  all  things. 
Upon  this  the  temple  guards  arrested  them  for  making  a 
disturbance  and  the  next  day  they  were  brought  before  the 
Sanhedrin.  It  is  not  the  Pharisees,  the  old  foes  of  Jesus, 
that  are  proceeding  against  the  disciples  here,  but  the 
Sadducees.  Worldly  and  at  heart  religiously  indifferent,  the 
Sadducees  probably  cared  very  little  about  the  disciples 
preaching  the  resurrection.  They  did  fear  the  results  that 
might  come  from  the  development  of  such  a  movement,  to 
which  they  thought  they  had  put  an  end  with  the  death 
of  Jesus  (Acts  3.  1-26). 

GamaUei  Despite  the  warning  given  the  apostles,  the  movement 

continued  to  grow.  A  second  time  the  Sadducees,  or  temple 
party,  laid  hold  upon  the  leaders  and  put  them  in  jail. 
At  this  juncture,  Luke  tells  us,  it  was  the  counsel  of  Ga- 
maliel that  saved  them:  "Refrain  from  these  men,  and  let 
them  alone :  for  if  this  counsel  or  this  work  be  of  men,  it 
will  be  overthrown:  but  if  it  is  of  God,  ye  will  not  be 
able  to  overthrow  them ;  lest  haply  ye  be  found  even  to  be 
fighting  against  God."  Gamaliel  was  a  rabbi  of  highest 
standing,  and  his  advice  was  followed  (Acts  5.  12-42). 

The  reason  Tlicsc  cascs,  after  all,  were  but  incidents.    The  Christian 

community  had  relative  peace  and  so  a  good  opportunity 
for  that  rapid  growth  of  which  Luke  speaks.  The  Sad- 
ducees came  to  look  upon  them  as  harmless  enthusiasts,  or 
else  were  deterred  from  action  against  them  by  their  grow- 
ing favor  with  the  people.  The  Pharisees,  who  had  been 
so  bitter  against  Jesus,  showed  no  hostility.  The  reason 
for  this  is  not  far  to  seek.  These  disciples  offered  no  criti- 
cisms, but  kept  the  law  as  good  Jews,  went  to  the  temple, 
and  observed  hours  of  prayer  and  rules  of  purity. 


for  peace 


FROM  JEWISH  TO  CHRISTIAN  i6i 

But  a  change  was  takinsf  place  within  the  church  itself.   "^^^ 

.  ,  ^^  ,  ,  ■  •         HeUenists 

Among  the  many  new  members  that  came  to  it  were  m- 

cluded  Greek-speaking  Jews,  or  Hellenists.  We  hear  of 
them  in  connection  with  the  appointment  of  the  seven. 
They  were  newer  members  of  the  community  and  their 
widows  were  being  neglected  in  the  distribution  of  relief. 
A  majority  of  the  seven  then  appointed  were  probably 
Hellenists,  and  Stephen  is  usually  reckoned  with  them. 
These  Hellenists  were  Jews  who  had  lived  abroad  but  had  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem.  This  return  indicated  their  devotion 
to  their  country  and  its  faith.  At  the  same  time  their  life 
in  other  lands  and  their  use  of  the  Greek  tongue  would 
tend  to  make  them  more  open-minded.  Among  these  men 
we  can  reckon  probably  Philip,  who  carried  the  gospel  to 
Samaria ;  Barnabas,  whose  name  is  put  before  that  of  Paul 
in  the  account  of  the  first  mission  across  the  sea;  and 
Stephen,  the  first  martyr. 

It  was  Stephen  who  brought  on  the  crisis.  What  he  Stephen's 
taught  we  cannot  definitely  know.  We  have  only  the  ac- 
cusations of  his  enemies  and  Luke's  report  of  his  speech, 
which  at  best  is  fragmentary,  being  broken  oflf  at  the  point 
where  he  was  beginning  to  set  forth  his  own  position. 
Stephen  did  not  anticipate  Paul's  teaching.  He  did  not 
oppose  the  law  by  saying  that  men  were  saved  by  grace 
alone  through  faith,  and  not  by  keeping  the  law.  He  spoke 
of  the  law  as  "Hving  oracles."  But  he  aroused  their  enmity 
at  two  points.  ( i )  The  temple,  he  declared,  was  only  tem- 
porary and  not  really  necessary.  God  did  not  dwell  in 
houses  made  with  hands.  Probably  Stephen  went  back 
here  to  the  word  of  Jesus  about  the  destruction  of  the 
temple.  Now,  as  then,  it  aroused  their  fury.  The  temple 
and  its  inviolability  were  at  the  heart  of  their  faith.  Jere- 
miah had  made  such  an  attack  once  and  suffered  for  it 
(Jer  7.  1-15 ;  26.  8,  9).  At  this  point  perhaps  his  opponents 
interrupted  him  with  fierce  accusations :  He  was  speaking 
against  the  holy  place  and  against  the  law.     Stephen  may 


teaching 


i62  NEW   TESTAAIENT   HISTORY 

•well  have  had  Jeremiah  in  mind  when  he  answered,  and 
still  further  stirred  their  hostility.  (2)  "You  charge  me 
with  opposing  the  law.  It  is  you  that  oppose  it.  You  are 
like  your  fathers,  always  resisting  God  when  he  spoke 
through  the  prophets,  receiving  the  law  but  never  keeping 
it"  (Acts  6.  8  to  7.  53). 
The  charges  fhis  last  charge  also  reminds  us  of  Jesus'  teaching  in 
his  attack  upon  the  Pharisees  and  in  the  higher  righteous- 
ness which  he  demanded.  Both  these  points  are  reflected 
in  the  charges  which  they  preferred  when  they  brought 
him  before  the  council:  "This  man  ceaseth  not  to  speak 
words  against  this  holy  place,  and  the  law:  for  we  have 
heard  him  say,  that  this  Jesus  of  Nazareth  shall  destroy 
this  place,  and  shall  change  the  customs  which  Moses  de- 
livered unto  us"  (Acts  6.  13,  14). 

The  attack  upon  the  temple  had  stirred  the  Sadducees ; 
what  he  had  said  about  the  law  aroused  the  Pharisees.  The 
trial  had  been  before  a  formal  session  of  the  council.  Now, 
apparently,  the  session  broke  up  in  confusion.  To  their 
minds  he  had  himself  confirmed  the  charge  of  blasphemy 
made  against  him.  Whether  with  Roman  consent  or  not, 
we  do  not  know,  but  they  hurried  him  forth  and  inflicted 
the  penalty  provided  by  their  law,  death  by  stoning.  Luke 
shows  us  the  spirit  of  this  first  disciple  who  sealed  his  wit- 
ness with  his  death :  "And  they  stoned  Stephen,  calling  upon 
the  Lord,  and  saying,  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit.  And 
he  kneeled  down,  and  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  Lord,  lay 
not  this  sin  to  their  charge"  (Acts  7.  54-60). 
What  Stephen  wrought  more  by  his  death  than  by  his  teach- 

Sght  mg  in  life.     He  brought  to  a  close  the  day  when  Chris- 

tianity could  live  on  undisturbed  as  a  harmless  Jewish  sect. 
In  their  formal  charges  the  witnesses  may  have  been  false, 
as  Luke  suggests.  In  the  main  point  they  were  right:  this 
new  movement  meant  an  end  to  the  temple  and  to  the  cus- 
toms of  Moses.  What  was  more  important,  Stephen  helped 
not  merely  their  enemies  but  the  church  herself  to  see  the 


FROM  JEWISH  TO  CITRTSTIAN  163 

meaning  of  the  faith.  In  the  first  place  came  the  fact  of 
persecution.  It  did  not  matter  that  most  of  the  disciples 
had  not  shared  in  the  insight  of  Stephen  or  held  his  views. 
They  found  themselves  driven  forth  on  account  of  the 
temple  and  the  law,  though  they  reverenced  both.  They 
had  to  face  the  question :  What  is  our  real  faith,  Jesus  the 
Alessiah  and  the  hope  of  his  coming,  or  ]\Ioses  and  the 
temple  and  the  laws?  And  they  saw  how  clearly  Christ  and 
the  hope  of  the  Kingdom  and  the  new  fellowship  stood  first, 
and  how  much  they  meant.  In  the  second  place,  Stephen 
initiated  the  first  missionary  period.  True,  there  was  no 
such  clear  purpose  in  their  minds  as  when  Paul  set  forth. 
But  an  ardent  living  faith  drives  to  utterance.  "They 
therefore  that  were  scattered  abroad  went  about  preaching 
the  word"  (Acts  8.  1-4). 

The  period  of  persecution  and  expansion  thus  went  hand  Persecution 
hi  hand.  The  driving  force  back  of  the  persecution  was  ^pansion 
the  Pharisees,  and  the  leader  in  the  movement  was  a  young 
man  named  Saul,  who  had  been  present  at  the  stoning  of 
Stephen.  The  apostles  apparently  remained  in  Jerusalem 
in  hiding.  Many  of  the  disciples  scattered  throughout 
Judaea  and  Galilee  and  Samaria,  some  probably  going  far- 
ther. There  must  have  been  little  groups  of  disciples  be- 
yond these  limits  even  before  this  time ;  we  read  of  dis- 
ciples at  Joppa,  Lydda,  Caesarea,  Damascus,  and  Antioch. 
The  real  work  of  expansion  did  not  come  through  formally 
appointed  missionaries  or  through  the  apostles.  For  the 
most  part,  it  was  done  by  common  men  and  women,  speak- 
ing as  they  had  opportunity  to  those  whom  they  met  in  their 
ordinary  work  of  life.  It  was  a  great  lay  movement,  and 
such,  indeed,  Christianity  remained  for  the  first  century. 

A  few  figures,  however,  stand  forth.    The  first  is  Philip,   PWiip 
not  one  of  the  twelve  but  one  of  the  seven,  for  the  twelve 
were  in  Jerusalem.     His  first  mission  was  to  Samaria,  his 
next  southward  as  far  as  Gaza  (Acts  8.  5-40).     Only  two 
incidents  are  given  from  these  journeys.    Near  Gaza  Philip 


i64  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

met  an  Ethiopian,  a  man  of  high  official  position  at  home, 
and  a  proselyte,  who  was  just  returning  from  Jerusalem. 
The  reference  to  Isaiah  shows  us  how  the  early  Christians 
were  already  interpreting  the  Old  Testament  in  relation  to 
Christ.  The  story  of  Simon  Magus  gives  us  a  side-light 
upon  conditions  at  that  time.  It  was  a  day  of  many  religions 
and  much  superstition  throughout  the  empire.  There  were 
all  manner  of  priests  and  prophets  and  charlatans,  and  peo- 
ple were  ready  to  believe  almost  any  magic  or  mystery. 
Simon  was  but  one  of  many  who  fed  on  this  spirit,  which 
was  for  him  a  source  of  livelihood.  In  PhiHp  he  recognized 
a  superior  power,  and  even  more  so  in  Peter  and  John  when 
these  came  down  from  Jerusalem.  To  be  able  to  give  the 
Holy  Spirit  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  seemed  to  him  just 
another  profitable  device,  and  he  was  willing  to  pay  well  for 
the  secret.  All  this  was  not  so  much  a  sign  of  great  wick- 
edness as  a  picture  of  what  religion  meant  to  many  in  that 
day — not  faith  and  righteousness,  but  magical  rites  and 
mysteries  of  all  kinds.  Similar  cases  are  met  later  in 
Paul's  work :  Elymas,  the  sorcerer,  and  the  soothsaying  girl 
(Acts  13.  6;  16.  16). 
Barnabas  The  qucstiou  of  Pctcr's  relation  to  this  expansion  must 

be  considered  later  on.  Luke  shows  us  clearly  that  this 
new  movement  in  the  church  was  a  lay  movement.  The 
spread  of  the  gospel  was  not  through  appointed  ministers 
and  missionaries,  but  simply  through  those  "that  were  scat- 
tered abroad."  These  went  as  far  as  Phoenicia  and  the 
coast  near  by,  the  great  city  of  Antioch  to  the  north,  and 
the  island  of  Cyprus.  Of  all  this  work  we  have  but  one 
definite  item.  At  Antioch  these  disciples  preached  not  only 
to  Jews  but  to  Gentiles  also.  Their  success  here  was  so 
great,  and  their  preaching  to  the  Gentiles  such  an  inno- 
vation, that  the  church  at  Jerusalem  had  to  take  notice 
of  it.  Fortunately,  it  was  Barnabas  whom  they  sent  down, 
himself  a  Hellenist  from  the  island  of  Cyprus  that  lay  off 
this  coast.     "He  was  a  good  man,  and  full  of  the  Holy 


and  Antioch 


FROM  JEWISH  TO  CHRISTIAN  165 

Spirit  and  of  faith."  Even  greater  success  followed  his 
coming  until  the  burden  and  the  opportunity  drove  him  to 
look  for  aid.  And  so  he  took  a  step  which  helps  to  usher 
in  another  period.  "He  went  forth  to  Tarsus  to  seek  for  Saul ; 
and  when  he  had  found  him,  he  brought  him  unto  Antioch. 
And  it  came  to  pass,  that  even  for  a  whole  year  they  were 
together  with  the  church,  and  taught  much  people;  and 
that  the  disciples  were  called  Christians  first  in  Antioch" 
(Acts  II.  19-26). 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

As  to  Peter  and  John,   read  Acts  3.   1-26:   5.   12-42. 

As  to  Stephen:    Acts  6.  8  to  7.  60.     Compare  Jer  7.  1-15;  26.  8,  9. 

As  to  Philip:    Acts  8.  1-40. 

As  to  Antioch,  read  Acts  11.   iQ-26. 

Locate  the  following  places  upon  the  map  and  note  the  enlarg- 
ing circle:  Samaria  (city),  Gaza,  Lydda,  Joppa,  Caesarea,  Damas- 
cus,  Antioch,   Cyprus. 

The  Ethiopian  was  reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  Greek,  that  is, 
the  Septuagint  version.  Compare  Acts  8.  32,  2^  with  Isa  53.  7,  8, 
and  note  the  difference  in  the  versions. 


PART  IV 

PAUL  AND  THE  CHURCH  OF 
THE  EMPIRE 


167 


CHAPTER  XXV 
THE  MAN  AND  HIS  TASK 
In  the  story  of  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  there  is  Paul's  place 

in  N.  T. 
history 


one  man  who  claims  a  larger  space  than  all  others  of  that  "^  ^'  ^ 


first  century  put  together.  Some  have  looked  upon  him  as 
the  one  true  interpreter  of  Jesus,  others  as  the  man  who 
turned  the  new  faith  aside  from  the  simple  teaching  of 
Jesus,  yet  no  one  has  disputed  his  importance.  In  any  his- 
tory of  New  Testament  times  his  thought  and  work  fill  the 
main  place  after  the  study  of  Jesus.  What  makes  this  more 
remarkable  is  certain  facts  about  this  man.  He  was  not 
one  of  the  twelve.  He  had  no  such  standing  as  belonged  to 
one  who  had  associated  with  Jesus.  He  had  been,  indeed, 
a  persecutor  of  the  new  way.  He  began  his  work  on  his  own 
account.  The  mother  church  at  Jerusalem  gave  him  no 
credentials.  There  were  times,  in  fact,  when  the  recognized 
leaders  of  the  church,  Peter  and  James,  were  opposed  to  him. 

There  are  two  reasons  why  this  special  attention  is  given  Our 
to  Paul.  In  the  first  place,  we  are  in  better  position  to  ofpaui^^ 
know  him  than  any  other  figure  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  picture  of  Jesus,  it  is  true,  stands  out  clear  and  definite. 
And  yet  our  oldest  Gospels  were  written  a  full  generation 
after  his  death,  they  give  us  his  words  in  Greek,  while  he 
spoke  Aramaic,  and  of  his  life  they  report  but  a  few  months 
or  years.  Of  his  followers  almost  all,  even  of  the  leaders 
like  the  twelve,  are  but  names  to  us.  Paul  is  the  exception. 
It  is  true  that  most  of  our  knowledge  of  his  life  is  limited 
to  a  period  of  seven  years.  And  yet  there  is  probably  no  man 
of  antiquity  who  is  better  known  to  us.  It  is  not  simply  that 
so  large  a  part  of  the  book  of  Acts  is  given  to  him,  nor  yet 
the  fact  that  we  possess  writings  from  his  own  hand.  It  is 
the  character  of  these  writings.    This  man  was  not  writing 

169 


I70  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

for  a  public  press,  nor  for  unknown  readers,  nor  for  pos- 
terity. He  was  not  producing  "literature,"  or  thinking  of 
style  or  of  the  impression  he  would  make.  We  see  a  soul 
of  deep  passion,  of  strong  conviction,  and  transparent  sin- 
cerity pouring  forth  its  thought  and  feeling.  And  this 
man's  thought  is  never  mere  thought,  no  theoretic  theology ; 
it  is  his  faith  and  his  experience.  Not  the  Confessions  of 
Augustine,  nor  the  letters  of  Luther,  nor  the  Journal  Intimc 
of  Amiel  reflect  so  truly  or  transparently  the  man. 
His  The  second  reason  for  the  space  given  to  Paul  is  the  im- 

importance  pgrtancc  of  the  man.  It  was  this  man,  not  one  of  the 
twelve,  who  saw  the  meaning  of  Christianity  as  a  univer- 
sal religion  and  freed  it  from  Judaism,  who  saw  it  as  a  spir- 
itual faith  and  freed  it  from  Jewish  rule  and  law.  It  was 
he  who  carried  it  out  into  the  great  Roman  world  and  es- 
tablished it  province  by  province  about  the  Mediterranean. 
When  in  his  last  years  he  was  looking  toward  Rome  and 
Spain,  he  could  speak  of  those  things  "which  Christ  wrought 
through  me,  for  the  obedience  of  the  Gentiles,  by  word  and 
deed,  in  the  power  of  signs  and  wonders,  in  the  power  of 
the  Holy  Spirit ;  so  that  from  Jerusalem,  and  round  about 
even  unto  Illyricum,  I  have  fully  preached  the  gospel  of 
Christ"  (Rom  15.  18,  19). 
The  Jew  Our  first  question  about  such  a  man  is,  Where  did  he 

come  from,  and  what  was  his  preparation  for  such  a  work? 
Scattered  here  and  there  we  find  not  a  few  references  that 
help  us  answ^er  these  queries.  Three  times  Paul  speaks  of 
his  race  (Rom  11.  i ;  2  Cor  11.  22;  Phil  3.  5).  To  say  that 
Paul  was  a  Jew  means  as  little  for  that  time  as  it  does  now. 
There  were  Jews  then,  as  now.  loyal  to  every  tradition  of 
their  faith.  There  were  Jews,  especially  in  the  dispersion, 
who  were  of  a  more  liberal  cast,  as  well  as  some  who  had 
turned  from  the  faith  of  their  fathers.  Though  Paul's  home 
was  in  the  dispersion,  in  Tarsus  of  Cilicia,  he  belonged  in  the 
first  class.  "A  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews"  he  calls  himself. 
In  such  a  home  the  native  Aramaic  tongue  was  spoken. 


THE  MAN  AND  HIS  TASK  171 

which  was  not  the  rule  with  the  Jews  dwelUng  ahroad.  The 
Pharisaic  standard  prevailed,  the  strictest  observance  of  the 
law.  As  to  his  own  life,  he  could  appeal  to  those  who  knew 
him  at  Tarsus  and  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  26.  4,  5).  He  had 
completed  his  education  at  Jerusalem  under  the  noted 
teacher  Gamaliel,  perhaps  at  the  home  of  an  elder  sister 
(Acts  22.  3;  23.  16). 

Paul  was  a  Hellenist,  a  Greek  Jew.  However  strict  the  The  Greek 
home  might  have  been,  the  fact  remains  that  he  spoke 
Greek  as  well  as  Hebrew,  that  his  early  Hfe  was  passed  in 
a  great  city,  and  that  he  had  a  knowledge  of  the  world 
of  his  day  and  its  thought  that  none  of  the  twelve  could 
have  had.  A  language  is  never  a  lifeless  vehicle ;  it  al- 
ways involves  a  certain  direct  contact  with  another  life  and 
knowledge  of  it.  The  Greek  tongue  was  the  channel 
through  which  there  poured  the  rich  life  of  that  old  world. 
True  Paul  was  not  a  student  of  Greek  rhetoric  or  literature. 
He  did  not  attend  the  great  university  at  Tarsus,  which  could 
be  mentioned  with  the  schools  at  Athens  and  Alexandria. 
But  this  language  that  he  knew  was  still  open  door  and 
open  window  for  the  thought  of  the  wide  Roman  world. 
When  Paul  went  out  to  preach  the  gospel  it  was  more  than 
a  mere  language  that  he  possessed. 

Paul  was  a  Roman.  Like  many  Jews  he  had  two  names.  The  Roman 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  is  not  by  his  Hebrew  name 
Saul,  but  his  Roman  name  Paul,  that  he  is  best  known.  Far 
more  important  than  the  name  is  the  fact  that  Paul  was  a 
Roman  citizen,  and  was  one  by  birth.  How  the  family  had 
obtained  this  privilege  we  do  not  know.  It  suggests  a  fam- 
ily not  only  of  standing  but  of  some  means.  Roman  citi- 
zenship was  by  no  means  so  common  yet  in  the  empire. 
For  Paul  it  meant  more  than  a  welcome  protection  in  his 
work.  It  had  its  effect  upon  his  spirit  and  character.  He 
is  not  simply  a  Hebrew  of  Hebrews ;  he  is  a  man  of  Tarsus, 
"a  citizen  of  no  mean  city."  It  gives  him  an  imperial  out- 
look.    The  world  of  the  twelve  is  Palestine ;  Paul's  world 


172  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

is  the  empire,  and  it  is  the  empire  that  he  plans  to  take 
for  Christ. 

The  equip-  All  this  means  an  unusual  equipment  for  a  great  task. 

^^task'  The  soil  from  which  Christianity  sprang  was  Judaism.     No 

Greek  or  Roman  could  have  been  its  interpreter.  For  that 
a  Jew  was  needed,  and  Paul  was  more  of  a  Jew  than  were 
the  twelve.  But  it  needed  not  only  a  Jew,  but  a  Jew  who 
had  found  out  where  Judaism  failed.  Here  again  Paul's 
experience  fitted  him.  His  very  strictness  as  a  Pharisee 
made  him  see  the  failure  of  the  law,  and  saved  him  from 
such  half-way  positions  as  James  and  Peter  could  take. 
At  the  same  time  Paul's  life  as  Hellenist  and  as  Roman 
fitted  him  for  the  task  that  was  waiting:  to  take  this  re- 
ligion freed  from  Judaism,  to  interpret  it  to  the  world  of 
Greek  thought,  and  to  plant  it  in  communities  throughout 
the  great  world  of  Roman  life.  The  fruits  of  his  toil  show 
his  fitness  for  the  task.  Besides  all  this  there  was  his  per- 
sonal charater,  an  unusual  combination  of  strong  traits. 
He  had  the  strength  of  will  that  could  stand  alone  and  that 
never  knew  defeat.  He  had  a  deep  religious  nature  that 
enabled  him  to  speak  the  new  message  from  his  own  heart. 
He  had  the  insight  into  the  meaning  of  the  new  faith  and  the 
ability  to  state  it.  He  had  the  master  mind  to  plan  the 
planting  of  a  church  throughout  the  empire,  and  the  patience 
and  skill  and  tact  to  carry  out  that  plan. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING   AND    STUDY 

As  to  Paul  the  Jew:  2  Cor  ii.  22;  Rom  11.  i;  Phil  3.  5;  Acts 
22.  3;  23.  16;  26.  4,  5;  Gal  I.  14;  Rom  8.  2;  9.  1-5. 

As  to  Paul  the  Hellenist:  Acts  17.  i6-34-  Paul  meets  these 
Greeks  as  a  Palestinian  Jew  could  not  have  done.  Note  his  tact  and 
courtesy,  and  his  skill  in  finding  a  point  of  contact  for  his  message. 

As  to  Paul  the  Roman:  Acts  16.  36-39;  21.  39;  22.  25-29;  25. 
10-12. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
CONVERSION  AND  CALL 

For  some  men  life  unfolds  in  a  simple  and  direct  prog-  a  twice-bom 
ress  from  beginning  to  end.  These  have  been  called  the  ™^ 
once-born  men.  There  are  others  whose  life  is  marked  by 
a  great  break,  a  revolution  through  which  at  last  they  find 
tiieir  true  selves.  These  are  the  twice-born  men,  and  such  was 
Paul.  His  whole  life  falls  into  two  distinct  parts,  divided 
by  his  conversion.  Neither  his  thought  nor  his  work  can 
be  understood  without  reference  to  that  experience. 
Through  that  experience  Paul  won  his  message,  for  his 
burning  message  is,  first  of  all,  something  that  he  himself 
lived  and  achieved;  and  in  that  same  experience  he  ob- 
tained his  call. 

Paul  was  a  young  man  at  the  time  of  Stephen's  death.  The  opponent 
It  seems  that  his  residence  was  then  in  Jerusalem,  and  that 
he  had  remained  there  after  finishing  his  course  under 
Gamaliel,  If  so,  he  was  in  Jerusalem  during  the  time  of 
Jesus'  public  ministry.  In  any  case,  so  devoted  a  Jew 
would  have  been  at  the  passover,  whether  living  in  Jeru- 
salem or  at  Tarsus.  All  this  makes  it  probable  that  Paul 
had  seen  Jesus  and  was  in  the  city  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  knew  the  first  Christian  community  and  its 
teachings.  So  strong  a  nature  as  his  could  not  take  a 
passive  attitude.  He  opposed  the  new  movement  with  all 
his  might,  and  for  two  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  it 
was  a  delusion.  It  believed  in  a  dead  Messiah.  Its  Mes- 
siah was  one  that  the  law  called  accursed  because  he  had 
been  put  to  death  upon  a  tree  (Deut  21.  22,  23).  In  the 
second  place,  these  Nazarenes  were  setting  up  something 
beside  the  law  and  above  it.  Stephen's  teaching  made  that 
clear,  and  Paul  consented  to  his  death. 

How  did  the  change  come  in  Paul's  faith?    That  it  was 

173 


J  74 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Preparation 
for  conver- 
sion: negative 


sudden  does  not  imply  that  there  was  no  preparation  for 
it.  There  was,  first  of  all,  a  negative  preparation.  Paul 
had  found  out  that  his  religion  of  the  law  was  a  failure. 
It  is  true  he  was  very  zealous :  "I  advanced  in  the  Jews' 
religion  beyond  many  of  mine  age  among  my  countrymen, 
being  more  exceedingly  zealous  for  the  traditions  of  my 
fathers"  (Gal  i.  14).  But  it  has  often  been  noted  that  men 
may  be  most  intolerant  of  others  when  they  have  become 
uncertain  of  their  own  position.  They  are  fighting  enemies 
both  within  and  without.  Of  this  fight  in  Paul's  case  we 
have  a  picture  from  his  own  hand  in  Rom  7.  It  is  hard 
to  put  ourselves  back  into  this  chapter.  The  law  was  for 
this  young  man  the  special  gift  with  which  God  had  distin- 
guished his  people,  raising  them  by  its  possession  far  above 
the  nations.  That  law  was  his  religion.  To  keep  it  was 
the  way  of  life.  Because  of  such  obedience  the  Messiah 
and  the  new  kingdom  were  to  come.  In  sober  fact,  how- 
ever, the  law  had  brought  him  not  life  but  death.  Paul 
was  too  honest  and  too  deeply  in  earnest  to  deceive  him- 
self. The  law,  in  the  first  place,  stirred  up  his  evil  de- 
sires. The  very  commandments  became  simply  occasions 
for  his  sinning,  just  as  too  many  rules  in  a  schoolroom  will 
provoke  boys  to  the  opposite  (Rom  7.  7-11).  In  the  second 
place,  the  law  served  to  make  plain  his  hopelessness.  It 
showed  him  that  there  was  another  law  in  him,  a  law 
of  selfishness  and  impurity  and  sin.  His  conscience  told 
him  that  the  law  was  right  and  good,  but  his  own  life 
followed  another  law.  "I  consent  unto  the  law  that  it  is 
good.  But  I  am  carnal,  sold  under  sin.  The  good  which 
I  would  I  do  not:  but  the  evil  which  I  would  not,  that  I 
practice"  (Rom  7.  14-23).  And  this  brought  him  face  to 
face  with  the  third  fact:  the  law  is  good,  but  it  has  no 
power.  It  can  stand  above  me  commanding  and  condemn- 
ing, but  it  cannot  help  me.  What  I  need  is  a  new  law 
within  me,  such  as  that  of  which  Jeremiah  spoke.  "Wretched 
man  that  I  am!  who  shall  deliver  me  out  of  the  body  of 


CONVERSION  AND  CALL  175 

this  death?"  (Rom  7.  24).  This  is  Paul's  interpretation 
of  his  old  life.  Paul  is  not  merely  theorizing  here.  There 
are  years  of  earnest  effort  and  bitter  disappointment  back 
of  these  words. 

The  second  preparation  for  the  change  was  positive.  Paul  The  positive 
probably  knew  Jesus  and  certainly  knew  the  first  disciples.  P''®P^''*t'°'^ 
Paul  was  not  the  kind  of  man  to  carry  on  such  a  campaign  of 
persecution  without  a  study  of  this  movement  which  he 
opposed,  and  without  adjusting  himself  to  its  claims.  Fur- 
dier,  he  had  seen  these  men.  Earnest,  but  restless  and  dis- 
satisfied, he  saw  the  enthusiasm  and  joy  and  peace  of 
these  disciples.  He  saw  Stephen  full  of  joy  and  peace  in 
the  very  moment  of  his  death.  With  a  man  of  his  deep 
religious  nature  such  impressions  would  register  them- 
selves deeply.  These  men  possessed  what  he  had  been  striv- 
ing for  in  vain. 

With  all  the  preparation,  the  change  came  not  gradually  The 
but  with  a  sudden  crisis.  There  are  five  notable  references  ^=^^"®°'^ 
to  this  event  in  his  letters — Gal  i.  15-17;  i  Cor  9.  i  ;  15.  8; 
2  Cor  4.  6.  And  three  accounts  are  given  in  the  book  of  Acts : 
9.  1-19;  22.4-21  ;  26.  9-18.  These  accounts  differ  in  details. 
They  agree  in  the  main.  In  his  persecution  of  these  Naza- 
renes  he  had  taken  a  commission  from  the  Sanhedrin  and  was 
on  his  way  to  Damascus.  On  the  road  he  had  a  vision  of  the 
risen  Christ.  Luke  speaks  of  a  voice,  but  the  vision  is  the 
central  fact  and  the  one  to  which  he  himself  refers.  He  saw 
the  Lord.  Luke  says  that  Paul  began  at  once  to  preach 
Christ  in  Damascus  (Acts  9.  20).  Paul  declares  that  he  first 
went  away  into  Arabia.  The  latter  was  undoubtedly  the 
case.  A  new  experience  had  come  to  him  that  was  to 
change  his  faith  and  his  life.  It  was  like  Paul,  both  as 
man  of  thought  and  man  of  action,  that  he  should  look 
its  meaning  full  in  the  face  and  shape  his  life  accordingly. 
For  such  thought  he  goes  into  Arabia. 

The  vision  of  the  risen  Christ  meant  even  more  to  Paul  The  changed 
than  it  did  to  the  disciples  at  Jerusalem.    Jesus  is  not  dead  of  Christ 


176  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

but  living.  He  is  not  the  deluded  and  defeated  leader; 
he  is  the  Messiah,  "declared  to  be  the  Son  of  God  with 
power,  according  to  the  spirit  of  holiness,  by  the  resurrec- 
tion from  the  dead"  (Rom  i,  4),  The  vision  thus  removed 
from  Paul's  path  his  first  stumbling-block.  The  cross  was 
the  second  stone  of  stumbHng,  as  Paul  found  it  later  with 
his  countrymen  when  he  preached  to  them.  He  who  died 
upon  the  tree  was  accursed.  Now,  however,  he  saw  that 
the  curse  was  borne  for  men.  The  death  was  not  God's 
condemnation  of  this  man,  but  God's  love  for  all  men,  that 
men  might  be  saved  from  their  sins.  Hence  the  death  on 
the  cross,  which  had  been  his  stumbling-block,  was  to  be- 
come the  center  of  his  message.  For  him  it  was  to  be  the 
unsurpassed  measure  of  God's  love,  the  supreme  deed  by 
which  God  sought  to  win  men  to  himself. 
The  changed  But  all  this  had  a  decisive  meaning  for  Paul's  own  re- 
ligious life.  It  was  not  simply  that  he  had  been  mistaken 
in  persecuting  the  Messiah.  His  whole  life  and  effort  had 
been  wrong.  No  wonder  he  spent  his  three  days  at  Da- 
mascus without  food  and  drink.  He  saw  his  whole  life  as 
a  failure.  He  had  thought  of  religion  simply  as  something 
to  be  done.  With  all  his  heart  he  wanted  to  be  righteous, 
but  the  righteousness  was  to  be  his  own  doing.  And  he 
had  thought  that  by  such  doing  and  such  righteousness 
his  people  might  bring  in  the  Kingdom  and  cause  the  Mes- 
siah to  come.  All  that  was  changed.  The  Messiah  was 
already  here.  God  had  sent  his  Son,  not  because  they  had 
earned  it,  but  just  because  of  his  own  love  and  mercy. 
That  was  the  great  difference — the  changed  thought  of 
God.  Paul  had  come  here  to  Jesus'  thought  of  God  as  the 
loving  Father.  What  had  been  for  Jesus  the  simple  ex- 
pression of  direct  faith,  Paul  had  gained  through  this 
struggle  and  by  the  vision  of  the  cross:  God  is  not  the 
giver  of  laws  justifying  men  only  as  they  have  kept  all 
his  commands.  He  is  the  God  of  mercy,  the  Father.  He 
sent  his  Son  into  the  world  that  he  might  reconcile  men 


idea  of 
religion 


change  meant 


CONVERSION  AND  CALL  177 

to  himself.     The  righteousness  that  men  cannot  earn  he 
gives. 

No  man  knew  better  than  Paul  himself  how  decisive  that  What  the 
change  was.  What  he  had  prized  before,  he  now  put  aside : 
his  Hebrew  lineage,  his  zeal  for  the  law,  his  strict  Phari- 
saic life.  In  place  of  the  old  pride  is  a  new  spirit.  There 
is  the  humility  and  reverence  of  one  who  takes  the  great 
gift  of  God's  forgiveness  and  love,  which  no  effort  of  his 
had  been  able  to  earn.  And  there  is  the  joy  and  confidence 
of  one  who  has  found  the  meaning  of  life,  its  treasure  and 
its  strength.  He  sets  forth  the  contrast  and  the  change  in 
his  life  in  a  fine  passage :  "We  are  the  circumcision,  who 
worship  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  glory  in  Christ  Jesus, 
and  have  no  confidence  in  the  flesh.  Though  I  might  also 
have  confidence  in  the  flesh.  If  any  other  man  thinketh 
that  he  hath  whereof  he  might  trust  in  the  flesh,  I  more : 
circumcised  the  eighth  day,  of  the  stock  of  Israel,  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  a  Plebrew  of  the  Hebrews ;  as  touch- 
ing the  law,  a  Pharisee ;  concerning  zeal,  persecuting  the 
church ;  touching  the  righteousness  which  is  in  the  law, 
blameless.  But  what  things  were  gain  to  me,  those  I  counted 
loss  for  Christ.  Yea  doubtless,  and  I  count  all  things  but 
loss  for  the  excellency  of  the  knowledge  of  Christ  Jesus 
my  Lord:  for  w^hom  I  have  suffered  the  loss  of  all  things, 
and  do  count  them  but  dung,  that  I  may  win  Christ,  and 
be  found  in  him,  not  having  mine  own  righteousness,  which 
is  of  the  law,  but  that  which  is  through  the  faith  of  Christ, 
the  righteousness  which  is  of  God  by  faith :  that  I  may 
know  him,  and  the  power  of  his  resurrection,  and  the  fel- 
lowship of  his  sufferings,  being  made  conformable  unto  his 
death ;  if  by  any  means  I  might  attain  unto  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead.  Not  as  though  I  had  already  attained, 
either  were  already  perfect:  but  I  follow  after,  if  that  I 
may  apprehend  that  for  which  also  I  am  apprehended  of 
Christ  Jesus.  Brethren,  I  count  not  myself  to  have  ap- 
prehended :  but  this  one  thing  I  do,  forgetting  those  things 


178 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Paul  finds 
his  lifework 


Conversion 
and  call 


which  are  behind,  and  reaching  forth  unto  those  things 
which  are  before,  I  press  toward  the  mark  for  the  prize 
of  the  high  calhng  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus"  (Phil  3.  3-14). 

In  this  experience  Paul  found  not  only  the  answer  to  his 
own  needs,  but  his  lifework  as  well.  He  was  not  a  man 
who  did  anything  by  halves.  His  religion  had  been  his 
chief  interest  up  to  this  time,  despite  the  struggle  and  dis- 
satisfaction of  his  life.  There  was  far  greater  reason  why 
he  should  give  himself  absolutely  to  the  cause  of  this  new 
faith.  Here  was  the  answer  to  his  own  needs,  and  he 
wanted  others  to  have  it.  But  his  call  was  not  simply  to 
preach ;  it  was  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles.  The  twelve  were 
at  Jerusalem ;  that  was  not  his  place.  He  saw  what  they 
had  not  discerned :  this  faith  was  a  world  faith,  not  a 
Jewish  faith.  Judaism  with  its  laws  and  ceremonies  belonged 
to  the  past.  This  was  a  message  of  the  God  and  Father 
who  loved  all  men,  and  who  asked  of  men  only  that  they 
should  put  their  trust  in  him.  He  had  found  not  simply 
the  Messiah  to  whom  the  Jews  had  looked  forward,  but 
the  Saviour  who  belonged  to  the  world.  They  at  Jeru- 
salem, had  not  seen  it ;  let  them  preach  to  the  Jews.  It 
was  his  task,  laid  on  him  by  direct  command  of  God  him- 
self, to  take  this  message  into  the  world.  No  one  among 
all  his  fellows  had  been  a  more  zealous  and  devoted  Jew 
than  he.  Now,  however,  he  says,  "It  was  the  good  pleasure 
of  God,  who  separated  me,  even  from  my  mother's  wom.b, 
and  called  me  through  his  grace,  to  reveal  his  Son  in  me, 
that  I  might  preach  him  among  the  Gentiles"  (Gal  i.  14, 
15).  That  did  not  mean  that  he  was  not  to  preach  to 
Jews.  It  did  mean  that  he  was  to  go  out  into  the  Roman 
world  and  not  to  stay  in  the  land  of  his  fathers. 

The  work  of  the  great  apostle  cannot  be  understood  until 
we  appreciate  his  profound  conviction  as  to  the  direct  com- 
mission that  he  had  from  God.  To  this  call  he  goes  back 
again  and  again.  When  some  of  the  Jewish  Christians  from 
Jerusalem    attack     his    authority,    and    insinuate    that    he 


CONVERSION  AND  CALL  179 

is  an  upstart  and  an  innovator  without  credentials  from  the 
mother  church  or  recognition  from  the  real  apostles,  he 
begins  his  letter  of  defense  by  writing  himself  as  "Paul, 
an  apostle  (not  from  men,  neither  through  man,  but  through 
Jesus  Christ,  and  God  the  Father,  who  raised  him  from  the 
dead)"  (Gal  i.  i).  He  tells  the  story  of  that  call  before 
King  Agrippa  in  defense  of  his  life,  and  sums  up  the 
passion  and  devotion  of  his  whole  life  in  the  phrase: 
"Wherefore,  O  King  Agrippa,  I  was  not  disobedient  to  the 
heavenly  vision"  (Acts  26.  16-20).  The  call  was  like  a 
compelling  power,  not  a  choice  of  his  own:  "Necessity  is 
laid  upon  me;  for  woe  is  unto  me,  if  I  preach  not  the 
gospel"  (i  Cor  9.  16).  And  this  was  his  strength  in  the 
midst  of  terrible  obstacles  and  persecutions  which  were  a 
constant  accompaniment  of  his  work.  Back  of  all  these  was 
the  consciousness  that  he  was  an  apostle  sent  forth  of 
God  (i  Cor  4.  9-13).  An  apostle  was  one  who  had  seen 
Christ,  and  who  had  received  from  him  the  commission  to 
bear  his  gospel.  The  vision  and  the  commission  had  come 
to  him,  and  with  all  his  personal  humility  he  set  that 
commission  proudly  side  by  side  with  those  of  Peter  and 
James  and  John  (Gal  2.  7-9). 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING    AND    STUDY 

Paul's  life  as  a  Jew  under  the  law :    Rom  7. 

The  three  accounts  of  the  conversion  in  Acts:  g.  1-19;  22. 
4-21  ;   26.   9-18. 

Paul's  own  references  to  the  same:  Gal  i.  15-17;  i  Cor  9.  i;  I5-  8; 
2  Cor  4.  6;  Phil  3.  3-14. 

Compare  the  four  accounts  of  the  conversion  and  Paul's  course 
immediately  thereafter  as  given  in  Acts  and  Galatians.  Note  the 
agreement  and  the  dififerences.  The  preference  naturally  is  to  be 
given  to  Paul's  own  account  in  Galatians. 

Read  Gal   i.    1-17;    i    Cor  4.  9-13. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
DAMASCUS,  SYRIA,  AND  CILICIA 

The  periods  Paul's  life  falls  naturally  into  four  periods :    ( i )   The 

years  before  the  conversion;  (2)  seventeen  years  of  quiet 
labor  in  Damascus,  Syria,  and  Cilicia;  (3)  seven  years  of 
world  mission;  (4)  five  years  of  imprisonment.  These  last 
years  may  have  been  followed  by  a  brief  period  of  liberty 
and  a  second  imprisonment,  but  of  this  we  cannot  be  cer- 
tain. The  third  period  is  the  only  one  of  which  we  have 
any  detailed  knowledge.  Fortunately,  these  are  the  years 
of  Paul's  great  achievements,  where  it  is  most  important 
for  us  to  know. 

The  sources  We  have  two  sources  of  knowledge  for  our  study  of 
Paul's  work — his  letters  and  the  book  of  Acts.  These  ac- 
counts supplement  each  other.  Acts  gives  an  outline  of 
Paul's  life,  and  connects  this  with  the  growth  of  the  church 
as  a  whole.  But  we  learn  very  little  from  Acts  about  the 
real  life  of  the  Pauline  churches.  Because  Luke  is  de- 
scribing the  spread  of  the  church,  he  tells  simply  how  the 
churches  were  founded.  The  letters,  on  the  other  hand, 
tell  us  how  these  churches  grew,  what  their  life  was,  and 
how  the  new  religion  met  the  many  questions  that  con- 
fronted it  in  the  Roman  world.  Where  Luke  and  Paul 
differ,  we  must  follow  the  latter;  for  Paul  writes  of  what 
he  knows  at  first  hand,  while  Luke  is  largely  dependent 
upon  others  and  writes  at  a  much  later  period.  There  are 
three  places  in  which  such  differences  may  appear:  (i) 
Luke  emphasizes  the  part  played  by  the  Jerusalem  church, 
and  her  authority  and  supervision.  Paul's  letters  show  how 
the  great  Gentile  church  grew  up  apart  from  the  founding 
or  direction  of  the  Jerusalem  leaders.  (2)  Luke  is  inclined 
to  emphasize  the  idea  of  harmony.     The  letters  reveal  the 

180 


DAMASCUS,  SYRIA,  AND  CILICIA  i8i 

conflict  that  shook  the  church  in  the  first  generation : 
whether  Christianity  was  to  be  a  world  faith  and  a  reH- 
gion  of  the  spirit,  or  a  Jewish  sect  and  a  rehgion  of  the 
law.  (3)  Occasionally  there  seems  to  be  a  difference  in 
order  of  events.  Paul,  for  example,  declares  that  he  went 
up  to  Jerusalem  at  the  close  of  the  fourteen  years  in  Syria 
and  Cilicia,  and  that  he  had  his  conference  with  the  apostles 
at  this  time.  Luke  places  this  conference  after  the  first  mis- 
sionary journey. 

The  first  three  years  of  this  period  Paul  spent  in  Damas-  Damascus 
cus.  Through  Ananias,  he  came  in  touch  with  the  disciples 
there  and  probably  began  preaching  at  once.  His  work 
ends  with  a  persecution,  the  first  in  the  long  list  that  he  was 
to  suffer.  Instigated  by  the  Jews,  the  governor  tried  to 
seize  him,  and  Paul  escaped  only  by  sudden  and  secret 
flight  (2  Cor  II.  32,  33;  Acts  9.  23-25). 

Then  follows  Paul's  first  visit  to  Jerusalem  since  his  The  first 
conversion  (Gal  i.  18-23).  Despite  Acts  9.  26-30,  we  Je^^s^em 
must  accept  Paul's  statement  here,  that  he  did  not  take 
up  any  public  work  or  come  before  the  church  as  a  whole. 
He  spent  two  weeks  in  quiet  with  Peter,  meeting  only 
James  in  addition.  Beyond  doubt  he  laid  before  Peter  his 
own  work  and  his  conception  of  the  gospel,  and  this  can 
hardly  have  been  without  influence  upon  the  latter.  Peter 
had  something  to  give  Paul  in  return.  True,  Paul  em- 
phatically asserts  his  independence  of  the  Jerusalem  apostles 
so  far  as  his  gospel  is  concerned;  but  that  does  not  mean 
that  Paul  would  not  welcome  eagerly  what  Peter  could  tell 
him  as  to  the  life  of  Jesus,  and  especially  his  teachings. 
Paul's  gospel  was  not  dependent  upon  such  details,  but  his 
letters  show  that  he  was  not  indifferent  to  them.  The  story 
of  the  suffering  and  death  of  Jesus  would  be  of  especial 
interest,  and  this  he  used  in  his  preaching  (Gal  3.  i).  He 
mentions  other  facts  about  the  life  of  Jesus  in  his  letters. 
Probably  in  his  preaching  to  Gentiles  in  particular  he  would 
narrate  the  outline   of  Jesus'   life.      More   important   than 


1 82 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Syria  and 
Cilicia 


The  work 


this  is  the  remarkable  insight  into  the  inner  spirit  of  Jesus, 
his  love  and  patience  and  humility,  which  Paul  shows  even 
in  passages  where  the  name  of  Jesus  is  not  mentioned, 
such  as  I  Cor  13.  Besides  this  Paul  would  be  interested  in 
the  teachings  of  Jesus.  A  word  of  Jesus  stood  for  Paul 
beside  the  Old  Testament  as  a  word  of  authority.  He  must 
have  welcomed,  therefore,  all  that  Peter  could  tell  him  from 
his  rich  memories  of  personal  intercourse  with  Jesus. 

Fourteen  years  follow  of  which  we  know  equally  little. 
During  all  this  time  Paul  tells  us  that  he  kept  away  from 
Jerusalem,  working  in  Syria  and  Cilicia.  The  latter  was  his 
home  province  and  it  was  natural  that  he  should  go  back 
to  Tarsus  to  begin.  The  center  of  the  Syrian  territory  was 
Antioch.  It  was  a  great  city,  ranking  next  to  Rome  and 
Alexandria  in  importance.  Here  East  and  West  met  and 
all  nations  were  found  mingled  together,  including  many 
Jews.  It  was  a  commercial  center  of  first  rank.  In  these 
respects  it  resembled  Corinth  and  Ephesus,  like  them  join- 
ing to  its  wealth  great  luxury  and  profligacy.  It  is  sig- 
nificant for  Paul's  work,  that  just  as  Antioch  became  his 
center  now,  so  for  the  last  period  of  his  work  Corinth  and 
Ephesus  were  his  headquarters.  To  Antioch  Paul  comes 
upon  invitation  of  Barnabas. 

Paul's  plan  of  work  during  these  fourteen  years  was 
probably  not  very  different  from  that  of  the  seven  years 
that  follow.  He  did  not  simply  remain  in  the  cities,  but, 
making  Tarsus  and  Antioch  his  centers,  traveled  up  and 
down  the  coast  and  through  the  surrounding  regions.  We 
have  one  passage  from  his  own  hand  which  probably  re- 
fers at  least  in  part  to  this  period.  In  it  he  gives  a  mov- 
ing picture  of  his  life  of  unremitting  toil,  of  hardship  and 
constant  danger,  as  he  goes  from  place  to  place  planting 
his  little  communities  of  disciples  and  watching  over  them. 
The  experiences  of  sea  and  shipwreck  may  well  have 
come  in  this  time,  as  much  of  his  travel  would  naturally 
be  by  vessel.    "Are  they  ministers  of  Christ?   (I  speak  as 


DAMASCUS,  SYRIA,  AND  CILICIA  183 

one  beside  himself)  I  more ;  in  labors  more  abundantly,  in 
prisons  more  abundantly,  in  stripes  above  measure,  in  deaths 
oft.  Of  the  Jews  five  times  received  I  forty  stripes  save  one. 
Thrice  was  I  beaten  with  rods,  once  was  I  stoned,  thrice 
I  sufifered  shipwreck,  a  night  and  a  day  have  I  been  in  the 
deep ;  in  journeyings  often,  in  perils  of  rivers,  in  perils  of 
robbers,  in  perils  from  my  countrymen,  in  perils  from  the 
Gentiles,  in  perils  in  the  city,  in  perils  in  the  wilderness,  in 
perils  in  the  sea,  in  perils  among  false  brethren ;  in  labor 
and  travail,  in  watchings  often,  in  hunger  and  thirst,  in 
fastings  often,  in  cold  and  nakedness.  Besides  those  things 
that  are  without,  there  is  that  which  presseth  upon  me  daily, 
anxiety  for  all  the  churches.  Who  is  weak,  and  I  am  not 
weak?  who  is  caused  to  stumble,  and  I  burn  not?"  (2  Cor 
II.  23-29). 

We  have  called  these  years  the  time  of  quiet  labor.  They  significance 
were,  however,  by  no  means  lacking  in  importance.  In  two  °  ^  ^^"° 
respects  they  were  of  the  greatest  significance  for  Paul's 
work,  (i)  Paul  himself  was  being  trained  for  his  great 
position  of  responsibility  and  leadership.  He  was  a  young 
man  when  he  began ;  he  was  a  tried  veteran  when  he  con- 
cluded. These  years  of  work  and  thought  showed  him  the 
wealth  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  ripened  in  him  those 
thoughts  with  which  his  later  letters  are  filled.  (2)  Paul 
was  firmly  establishing  a  strong  Gentile  church,  and  was 
doing  this  on  a  basis  of  freedom  from  the  Jewish  law. 
When  he  went  up  to  Jerusalem  at  the  end  of  these  years 
the  Gentile  church  was  already  a  fact,  and  the  mother 
church  could  do  no  less  than  recognize  it. 

A   chronological   outline   of    Paul's   life   may   be   added  chronological 
here.    These  dates  are  only  approximate,  and  vary  somewhat 
with  different  scholars.     Paul  was  probably  born  about  the 
same  time  as  Jesus,  and  was  converted  from  two  to  five 
years  after  Jesus'  death. 

I.     Period  of  youth  and  preparation. 
II.     Seventeen  years  of  quiet  work,  35  to  52. 


outline 


i84  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

(i)     At  Damascus,  three  years. 

(2)     In    Cilicia   and    Syria,   with    headquarters   at    Tarsus 
and  Antioch,  fourteen  years. 

III.  The  missionary  journeys,  52  to  59. 

(i)     A  brief  journey  through  Cyprus  and  Galatia. 

(2)  Work  in  Macedonia  and   Achaia,   with  headquarters 
at  Corinth  for  one  and  a  half  years. 

(3)  Work  in  Asia  with  headquarters  at  Ephesus  for  two 
years. 

IV.  The  years  of  imprisonment,  59  to  64. 

(i)     At   Caesarea,   two   years. 

(2)  On  the  way  to  Rome,  one  year. 

(3)  In    Rome,   two   years. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR   READING   AND    STUDY 

Read  Gal  i.  15-23;  Acts  11.  19-26;  2  Cor  11.  23-29. 
Trace  upon  the  map  the  journeys  so  far  referred  to:  Jerusalem 
to  Damascus  and  return,  Jerusalem  to  Tarsus,  Tarsus  to  Antioch. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
GENTILE  AND  JEWISH  CHRISTIANS 
Some  twenty  years  had  now  elapsed  since  the  death  of  Jewish 

and  Gei 

churches 


Jesus.    The  church  was  well  established  through  two  large  ^*^<^^"*''^ 


districts.  The  first  district  had  for  its  center  Jerusalem, 
and  included  the  churches  of  Judaea,  Samaria,  Galilee,  and 
the  cities  of  the  adjoining  coast  lands  such  as  Caesarea  and 
Joppa.  These  churches  were  predominantly  Jewish.  The 
second  district  was  to  the  north,  and  included  Syria  and 
Cilicia.  These  churches  were  predominantly  Gentile.  At 
the  head  of  the  former  work  were  James  and  Peter.  At  the 
head  of  the  latter  was  Paul. 

These  two  divisions  of  the  church  were  not  merely  geo-  The  question 
graphical.  Nor  were  they  racial,  a  matter  of  Jew  and 
Gentile.  The  real  question  at  issue  was :  What  is  Christi- 
anity? The  immediate  question,  however,  was  that  of  the 
Jewish  law.  The  life  of  the  faithful  Jew  was  regulated 
by  innumerable  laws.  Besides  the  religious  feasts  and  cere- 
monies, there  were  endless  restrictions  about  what  was 
clean  and  unclean  applying  to  food  and  places  and  per- 
sons. To  these  rules  the  Jew  was  accustomed  from  his 
childhood.  They  were  looked  upon  as  sacred  and  unchang- 
ing, as  given  by  God  through  Moses.  What  should  the 
Christian  do  about  these  rules? 

The  first  disciples  probably   thought  nothing  about  the   How  the 
matter.    The  rules  were  more  or  less  a  habit  of  life,  and  thev  *i"^^*'°° 

'  "      arose 

continued  them.  It  was  another  matter  when  the  gospel 
spread  to  the  Gentiles.  Plere  two  serious  questions  arose : 
( I )  Must  the  Gentiles  be  circumcised  and  keep  the  Jewish 
laws  in  order  to  be  Christians?  (2)  If  the  Gentile  converts 
do  not  keep  the  law,  how  can  the  Jewish  Christians  who 
keep  the  law  associate  with  them?     For  the  great  object 

185 


1 86 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Peter  and 
Cornelius 


The  sihiation 
at  Antioch 


of  the  law  was  to  keep  ceremonially  clean ;  to  associate 
with  those  who  did  not  keep  the  law  would  render  a  man 
unclean  in  the  same  way  as  if  he  did  not  keep  the  law 
himself. 

These  questions  the  church  had  not  fairly  faced  and 
settled.  Luke,  it  is  true,  tells  us  that  this  whole  matter  was 
met  by  Peter.  He  gives  us  the  story  in  Acts  lo.  i  to  ii.  i8. 
There  he  tells  how  Peter,  in  obedience  to  a  vision,  goes  to 
Caesarea  and  preaches  the  gospel  to  a  Gentile,  a  Roman 
centurion  named  Cornelius.  The  latter  is  called  "a  devout 
man,"  that  is,  a  Jewish  proselyte,  though  apparently  not 
circumcised.  Peter  goes  in  to  this  man,  and  baptizes  him 
and  his  household,  though  such  association  meant  cere- 
monial impurity  to  a  Jew.  On  his  return  he  is  remonstrated 
with  by  the  brethren  at  Jerusalem.  In  reply  he  tells  of 
the  vision  that  he  had  of  the  clean  and  unclean  meat,  and 
the  words  that  came  to  him,  "What  God  hath  cleansed, 
make  not  thou  common."  The  church  then  acquiesces  in 
this  position.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  this  was  the 
whole  cause  of  Paul's  conflict.  If  the  church  did  take  this 
position  at  this  time,  they  did  not  maintain  it.  It  seems 
quite  likely  that  Luke  has  put  this  story  concerning  Peter 
at  an  earlier  date  than  where  it  really  belongs. 

The  real  crisis  came  at  Antioch  at  the  close  of  this  period 
of  Paul's  work.  So  long  as  he  was  not  disturbed  from 
without,  Paul  had  felt  no  need  of  raising  the  question.  He 
had  preached  his  gospel  of  faith  to  the  Gentiles  without 
asking  them  to  keep  the  law.  He  had  probably  allowed 
Jewish  Christians  to  take  their  own  course.  There  was  no 
harm  in  his  eyes  in  keeping  the  law  so  long  as  men  saw 
clearly  that  they  were  not  saved  by  this,  but  by  their  trust 
in  Christ,  and  so  long  as  these  Jewish  Christians  were 
ready  to  associate  with  their  Gentile  brethren.  The  church 
at  Antioch  was  mainly  Gentile  and  the  Jewish  Christians 
did  not  hesitate  to  sit  down  with  these  Gentiles  at  the 
Christian  meals  which  they  ate  together.     This   was  the 


GENTILE  AND  JEWISH  CHRISTIANS       187 

"liberty  in  Christ  Jesus"  which  Paul  preached  and  which 
the  Jewish  brethren  accepted. 

It  was  men  from  the  Jerusalem  church  that  brought  about  judaizers 
the  crisis.  The  church  there,  it  seems,  had  been  moving  jg^^^jg^i 
backward  toward  Judaism  rather  than  away  from  it.  Among 
the  new  converts  were  not  a  few  Pharisees,  and  there  was 
an  increasing  element  that  stood  for  strict  observance  of 
the  law  (Acts  15.  5).  They  had  at  least  the  example  of 
James,  if  not  his  leadership.  This  party  sent  representa- 
tives down  to  Antioch  to  find  out  what  the  practice  there 
really  was.  Paul  calls  them  false  brethren,  "who  came  in 
privily  to  spy  out  our  liberty  which  we  have  in  Christ  Jesus, 
that  they  might  bring  us  into  bondage"  (Gal  2.  4;  Acts 
15.  2).  These  men  began  teaching  Paul's  converts  that  they 
could  not  expect  to  be  saved  if  they  did  not  keep  the  law, 
putting  circumcision  as  the  sign  and  test  of  the  whole  (Acts 
15.  i).  They  probably  attacked  Paul's  authority  at  the  same 
time,  declaring  that  he  was  no  genuine  apostle,  but  that  the 
true  apostles  were  at  Jerusalem,  and  that  these  kept  the 
law. 

Paul  decided  to  act  at  once  and  went  up  to  Jerusalem.  Why  Paul 
He  had  a  threefold  reason  for  going,  (i)  The  immediate  7^°*!? 
reason  was  that  he  saw  his  work  in  danger,  and  he  wanted 
to  secure  freedom  for  carrying  on  that  work  among  the 
Gentiles.  He  did  not  ask  for  authority,  for  he  believed  that 
his  authority  came  direct  from  God.  He  simply  wanted 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  his  right  to  proclaim  this  gospel 
was  on  a  par  with  theirs.  (2)  Paul  wanted  to  maintain 
fellowship  wath  the  mother  church  for  the  sake  of  his  Gentile 
converts.  That  church  was  the  living  link  with  a  great  past. 
They  represented  a  heritage  of  which  Paul  the  Christian 
was  as  proud  as  Paul  the  Jew  had  been :  the  whole  story 
of  Jehovah's  dealings  with  his  people,  the  words  of  prophet 
and  psalmist,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  Scripture.  The  Chris- 
tian Church  was  but  the  continuation  of  that  history,  the 
true  Israel.     The  Old  Testament  was  its  Sacred  Scripture. 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The 

Jerusalem 
conference: 
the  agree- 
ment 


The  decree 


The  mother  church  joined  these  pagan  converts  to  that  past. 
(3)  And,  finally,  Paul  believed  in  the  one  church  and  the 
one  fellowship  of  Christian  believers.  By  this  he  did  not 
mean  one  organization  or  one  central  authority.  He  never 
submitted  his  churches  to  direction  from  Jerusalem  or 
elsewhere.  The  unity  was  that  of  the  Spirit  and  of  fellow- 
ship. Then,  as  later,  he  did  all  that  he  could  to  maintain  it. 
The  body  of  Christ  was  one.  The  disciples  were  all  brothers 
and  members  one  of  another. 

Luke  gives  us  some  interesting  material  in  his  account  of 
the  Jerusalem  meeting  (Acts  15),  but  we  must  turn  to  Paul 
to  get  the  real  meaning  of  that  occasion.  Of  the  details  we 
cannot  be  sure.  It  seems  that  there  were  two  gatherings. 
Paul  and  Barnabas  reported  their  work  before  the  church 
as  a  whole.  The  Judaizing  disciples  raised  their  demand 
that  Gentile  converts  should  keep  the  law.  Paul  had  with 
him  a  Greek  convert,  Titus,  who  was  not  circumcised. 
Their  request  that  Titus  should  submit  to  the  rite  Paul  flatly 
refused.  Then,  however,  Paul  lays  the  matter  before  Peter 
and  James  and  John  in  private  conference.  From  them  he 
asks  the  recognition  of  his  right  to  preach  the  gospel  to 
the  Gentiles,  and  that  there  should  be  fellowship  between  the 
Gentile  churches  and  Jerusalem.  Face  to  face  with  the 
story  of  his  great  work,  these  men  cannot  say  no.  They  see 
the  Spirit  of  God  in  what  Paul  is  doing  and  they  give  him 
the  hand  of  fellowship.  They  will  preach,  as  before,  to  the 
Jews ;  he  to  the  Gentiles.  Paul  has  won  his  first  great  point, 
freedom  to  carry  on  his  work.  In  return  he  promises  to 
remember  the  poor  at  Jerusalem,  a  promise  that  he  loyally 
carried  out. 

Luke  relates,  in  addition  to  this,  that  the  church  issued  a 
formal  decree  requiring  that  the  Gentile  Christians  should 
"abstain  from  the  pollutions  of  idols  [that  is,  from  meat 
that  had  been  offered  to  idols],  and  from  fornication,  and 
from  what  is  strangled,  and  from  blood"  (Acts  15.  20).  If 
such  a  decree  was  given  at  this  time,  it  does  xiot  appear  to 


GENTILE  AND  JEWISH  CHRISTIANS       189 

have  had  any  particular  effect.  Certainly,  it  did  not  solve 
the  problem  of  the  relations  of  Jews  and  Gentiles.  Paul 
does  not  mention  this  in  speaking  of  the  conference,  nor 
does  he  refer  to  it  later  when  he  takes  up,  with  the  Corinthian 
church  for  example,  one  of  the  matters  here  referred  to. 
The  decree  as  such  seems  to  have  had  no  authority  for  him. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  such  a  decree  was  issued  later  and 
sent  to  the  churches  of  Syria  and  Cilicia.  It  was  certainly 
not  carried  by  Paul  west  of  the  Taurus. 

The  agreement  at  the  Jerusalem  conference  was  really  a  The  new 
compromise,  not  a  solution.  How  insufficient  it  was  soon  ^jf^'^^*' 
appeared.  Peter  in  the  course  of  his  work  came  to  Antioch, 
where  the  Jewish  Christians  had  associated  freely  with 
their  Gentile  brothers.  When  Peter  came  down  he  did  the 
same.  Into  this  scene  of  fellowship  there  came  some  of  the 
Judaizing  Christians  from  Jerusalem.  Paul  says  they  came 
from  James,  \\niat  they  said  we  do  not  know.  They  may 
have  admitted  that  the  Gentiles  could  be  Christians  without 
keeping  the  law.  But  they  insisted  that  a  good  Jew  must 
keep  the  law  and  dare  not  associate  with  such  Gentiles. 
What  right  had  he  to  throw  over  the  sacred  law  of  Moses? 
Why  should  he  give  up  the  heritage  of  the  fathers  that  had 
set  Israel  apart,  and  put  himself  on  a  plane  with  the  Gentiles? 
With  such  arguments  they  not  only  sv>^ept  Peter  off  his  feet, 
but  the  rest  of  the  Jewish  Christians,  and  even  Paul's  old 
friend,  Barnabas. 

Here,  at  last,  the  real  issue  appears,  and  it  is  Paul  that  The  real 
brings  it  out.  The  real  question  is  not  that  of  dividing 
territory,  Jewish  and  Gentile,  or  recognizing  each  other's 
work.  The  question  is.  What  is  Christianity?  Or,  as  Paul 
puts  it,  How  shall  a  man  be  justified?  Paul  does  not  simply 
take  the  defensive.  He  attacks  Peter.  Peter  is  dissembling, 
playing  a  part.  Peter  believes  as  truly  as  Paul  that  he  is 
saved  not  by  keeping  rules,  but  by  faith  in  Christ ;  by  the 
mercy  of  God,  and  not  by  what  he  earns  through  keeping 
the  law.    But  if  Peter  expects  to  be  saved  by  this,  why  does 


I90  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

he  try  to  compel  these  Gentiles  to  keep  the  law?   (Gal  2. 
14-16). 
Two  results  Just  what  the  issue  of  the  matter  was  at  Antioch  we  do 

not  know.  Two  results  are  plain,  (i)  The  Jerusalem 
agreement  turned  Paul  definitely  toward  the  larger  Gentile 
world.  The  final  and  greatest  period  of  his  ministry  now 
begins.  From  Antioch  he  moves  on  to  Galatia,  from  Galatia 
to  Macedonia,  Achaia,  and  Asia,  while  beyond  these  his 
eyes  rest  upon  Rome  and  distant  Spain.  (2)  The  conflicts 
with  the  Judaizers  continue,  and  form  Paul's  severest  trial. 
But  there  is  never  any  doubt  in  Paul's  mind  as  to  his  right 
or  as  to  the  final  issue.  History  justifies  him.  The  gospel 
which  moves  through  the  Roman  world  is  a  gospel  that  is 
free  from  Judaism  and  Jewish  law.  And  Christianity  ceases 
to  be  a  Jewish  faith  and  becomes  a  world  religion. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Read  Gal  2;  Acts   15.   1-35. 

Compare  carefully  these  two  accounts.  Some  scholars  hold  that 
Luke  is  following  the  common  custom  of  writers  of  his  day  in 
composing  the  speeches  that  are  assigned  to  Peter  and  James,  either 
using  materials  that  he  had  on  hand  or  setting  forth  what  he 
assumed  to  be  their  position. 


CHAPTER    XXIX 
PAUL    THE    MISSIONARY 

Now  there  begin  the  seven  years  of  work  which  mark  the  Seven  great 
crown  of  Paxil's  ministry  Into  these  seven  years  is  crowded  ^^^^^ 
an  achievement  beyond  what  many  great  men  have  wrought 
in  a  hfetime.  One  province  after  another  Paul  lays  claim 
to  in  the  name  of  Christ.  With  restless  energy  he  carries 
the  message,  assisted  by  a  group  of  workers.  Nor  is  he 
content  to  be  a  mere  wandering  preacher.  As  he  goes  he 
establishes  Christian  communities,  and  over  these  he  keeps 
watch,  dispatching  one  or  the  other  of  his  assistants,  or^ 
sending  letters  like  those  which  have  come  down  to  us  under 
his  name. 

Beneath  all  these  varied  activities  there  lay  a  definite  plan,  The  conquest 
which  comes  to  the  surface  again  and  again.  Paul  did  not  °  ^  empire 
strike  out  at  random  into  the  Gentile  world.  His  plan  was 
nothing  less  than  to  win  the  whole  empire,  and  to  do  this 
by  planting  the  church  in  order  in  the  Roman  provinces  that 
surrounded  the  IMediterranean.  In  an  interesting  passage, 
written  to  the  Romans  about  the  close  of  this  period,  he 
tells  of  these  plans.  "God  sent  me,"  he  says,  "to  be  a 
minister  to  the  Gentiles.  This  mission  I  have  fulfilled  from 
Jerusalem  around  as  far  as  Illyricum.  I  have  one  last  task 
here,  to  take  to  Jerusalem  the  money  that  I  have  collected 
for  the  church  there.  This  done,  I  shall  start  for  Spain, 
stopping  on  the  way  at  Rome  to  see  you  as  I  have  long 
wished  to  do"  (Rom  15.  T4-33).  This  imperial  plan  appears 
in  the  way  in  which  Paul  refers  to  his  work.  As  a  rule,  he 
does  not  mention  the  cities  where  he  works,  but  speaks, 
rather,  of  the  provinces.  He  refers  to  Asia,  not  to  Ephesus, 
to  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  not  to  Corinth  and  Philippi  (  Rom 
16.  5 ;  I  Thess  i.  7). 

191 


192 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Paul  saw  the  It  was  a  great  conception,  this  winning  of  an  empire  for 
c^tianity  ^^^^  "^^^  faith.  Paul  has  been  called  a  second  Alexander, 
moving  westward  instead  of  eastward  in  this  march  of  con- 
quest. More  than  anything  else  it  brings  to  light  the  differ- 
ence between  him  and  the  Jerusalem  leaders,  and  the 
significance  of  Paul's  idea  of  the  gospel.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Peter,  it  seemed  that  they  were  content  to  remain 
at  Jerusalem,  praying  and  waiting  for  the  heavens  to  open 
again  and  Christ  to  return.  Paul  saw  the  wealth  and  the 
meaning  of  the  new  faith  as  they  did  not,  a  religion  of  life 
and  power  for  all  men  and  not  alone  the  Jews.  That  concep- 
tion was  back  of  the  mission:  'T  am  not  ashamed  of  the 
gospel:  for  it  is  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation  to  every 
one  that  believeth ;  to  the  Jew  first,  and  also  to  the  Greek." 
That  was  why  he  felt  himself  sent  to  all  the  Gentiles  and 
counted  himself  "debtor  both  to  Greeks  and  to  Barbarians" 
(Rom  I.  13-17). 
Certain  limits  This  general  plan  had  certain  limits.  ( i )  Paul  would 
not  go  where  others  had  laid  the  foundation  (Rom  15.  20). 
That  is  why  he  makes  it  plain  to  the  Roman  church  that  he 
is  simply  stopping  off  to  see  them  on  his  way  to  Spain 
(Rom  15.  24).  (2)  Paul  would  not  work  in  Jewish  terri- 
tory. This  may  help  answer  the  question  sometimes  raised. 
Why  did  not  Paul,  who  swept  around  the  circle  of  the  sea 
from  Jerusalem  to  Spain,  go  south  to  Egypt,  especially  to 
Alexandria?  The  reason  may  be  that  Alexandria  was  so 
much  of  a  Jewish  city.  It  had  a  large  and  prosperous  Jewish 
population,  which  had  its  separate  quarter,  even  having 
its  own  city  walls  inclosing  it.  (3)  One  other  element 
enters  into  Paul's  plans.  He  felt  that  the  return  of  the 
Lord  was  near.  The  time  was  short.  He  had  to  give  his 
message  and  start  the  work  and  care  for  it  from  a  distance 
as  well  as  he  could.  But  he  could  not  remain,  he  must 
hurry  on. 
Missionaries  The  missionary  was  not  a  strange  figure  in  that  age.  It 
woiid  ^°°^''   was  a  day  of  religious  ferment.    The  old  national  religions 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  193 

were  passing  away.  New  cults  were  coming  in,  especially 
the  mystery  religions  from  the  east.  Traveling  merchants 
and  soldiers  were  often  zealous  propagators  of  such  faiths. 
There  were  also  traveling  teachers  of  rhetoric  and  philo- 
sophy. The  Jewish  missionaries  were  probably  the  most 
active.  Jesus  spoke  of  the  Pharisees  as  compassing  sea 
and  land  to  make  one  proselyte.  The  bitterness  of  the  Jews 
against  Paul  was  caused  largely  by  his  success  in  making 
converts  and  in  drawing  away  the  proselytes  whom  they 
had  won. 

Paul's  first  act  in  coming  to  a  city  would  be  to  find  quarters  Paul's 
for  himself.  Ordinarily,  he  planned  to  stay  for  some  period  g^^.'support 
and  so  sought  a  place  where  he  could  carry  on  his  trade  of 
tent-maker.  For  to  his  many  burdens  he  added  this  other, 
that  of  self-support.  From  only  one  church,  that  at  Philippi, 
was  he  willing  to  take  aid.  He  believed  in  the  right  to  such 
support  for  Christian  apostles.  He  defended  the  principle 
and  his  own  right  to  this  later  on.  But  for  himself  he 
would  not  assert  this  claim.  "We  bear  all  things,  that  we 
may  cause  no  hindrance  to  the  gospel  of  Christ"  ( i  Cor  9. 
1-18).  Paul  probably  had  a  double  reason.  He  did  not 
want  to  be  confounded  with  traveling  rhetoricians  who 
talked  simply  for  hire,  and  he  wanted  to  remove  all  ground 
for  misunderstanding  and  criticism  of  his  motives  on  the 
part  of  his  Jewish  enemies. 

Paul's  next  task  was  to  find  a  way  of  approach  for  his  Paul  and  the 
message.  That  led  him  naturally  to  the  synagogue.  He  ^^^^^"^^ 
did  not  consider  this  a  violation  of  his  agreement  to  go  to 
the  Gentiles.  Apparently,  that  meant  to  Paul  simply  that 
he  was  to  keep  away  from  Jewish  territory.  But  here,  where 
none  of  the  apostles  from  Jerusalem  came,  there  was  no 
reason  why  he  should  not  speak  to  the  Jew^s.  This,  however, 
was  not  the  main  reason  for  his  presence  in  the  S}-nagogue. 
Jewish  missionary  work  had  been  carried  on  for  years,  and 
while  the  Jews  were  hated  by  many,  tlierc  were  others  who 
\\'ere  attracted  by  their  lofty  moral  and  religious  teachings. 


194 


NEW   TESTA^IENT    HISTORY 


After  the 
synagogue 


Paul  as 
speaker 


These  adherents  or  sympathizers  afforded  some  of  Paul's 
first  and  best  converts. 

In  the  free  worship  of  the  synagogue  there  was  always 
opportunity  for  such  a  visitor  to  speak.  Naturally,  Paul 
could  not  continue  his  preaching  permanently  in  the  syna- 
gogue. Some  Jews  he  won,  but  the  major  part  would 
refuse  his  message.  Often  they  followed  him  from  one  city 
to  the  other  and  turned  the  Jews  against  him.  But  he  had 
found  interesting  hearers  among  the  proselytes,  and  now 
through  these  he  could  meet  other  Gentiles.  So  his  work 
was  continued  usually  in  the  house  of  some  well-to-do  con- 
vert. Thus  in  Philippi  he  was  guest  of  Lydia,  at  Thessa- 
lonica  he  used  the  house  of  Jason,  and  at  Corinth  that  of 
Titus  Justus  (Acts  i6.  15;  17.  7;  18.  7).  In  Ephesus  we 
read  that  he  continued  in  the  synagogue  three  months. 
Apparently,  Paul's  success  there  demanded  a  larger  room 
than  a  private  house  could  afford,  and  so  he  spoke  in  a 
public  hall,  "the  school  of  Tyrannus"  (Acts  19.  8.  9).  One 
of  the  oldest  manuscripts  of  Acts  adds  to  these  verses  the 
words  "from  the  fifth  to  the  tenth  hour,"  that  is,  from  eleven 
to  four.  Paul,  it  would  seem,  rented  for  this  part  of  the 
day  a  hall  which  was  given  to  other  uses  as  well. 

Judged  by  the  common  standards  of  his  day,  Paul  was 
not  a  great  speaker.  It  was  a  day  when  rhetoric  and  oratory 
were  carefully  cultivated,  and  of  these  things  Paul  made  no 
pretense.  His  enemies  said  that  he  was  rude  of  speech,  that 
his  speech  was  of  no  account  and  his  bodily  presence  weak 
(2  Cor  II.  6;  10.  10).  Paul  makes  no  denial.  He  says 
to  the  Corinthians:  "I  was  with  you  in  weakness,  and  in 
fear,  and  in  much  trembling.  And  my  speech  and  my 
preaching  were  not  in  persuasive  words  of  wisdom"  ( i  Cor 
2.  3,  4).  At  Athens  they  called  him  a  babbler  (Acts  17.  18). 
It  is  a  fair  question,  however,  whether  the  fault  did  not  He 
in  the  artificial  standards  of  the  time  rather  than  with  Paul 
himself.  Simple,  direct,  unpolished,  even  rude,  his  speech 
probably  was.     But  it  met  the  final  test :  he  stirred  men's 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  195 

hearts  and  swept  them  off  their  feet.  1  le  carried  the  council 
of  Jerusalem,  though  he  stood  there  almost  alone.  And  how 
many  a  later  company,  Jew  and  Gentile,  cultured  and  pagan, 
was  home  down  by  the  earnestness  and  sincerity  and  moral 
power  of  his  address.  Earnestness  and  spiritual  power 
were  the  mark  of  Paul's  speech.  The  man  was  wholly  lost 
in  his  message.  Men  did  not  listen  to  fine  phrases,  they 
heard  a  man,  and  a  man  afiame  with  his  thought.  Some 
might  call  him  mad,  but  others  trembled  (Acts  26.  24; 
24.  25).  With  this  earnestness  went  a  power  of  will  that 
made  Paul  commanding  when  he  spoke  as  when  he  acted. 
Back  of  all  else  was  the  utter  devotion  of  his  soul  and  his 
utter  dependence  upon  God.  Men  felt  that  God  was  speak- 
ing through  this  man,  and  he  could  call  the  Corinthians  to 
witness  that  though  in  weakness,  yet  his  speech  was  "in  the 
demonstration  of  the  Spirit  and  of  power." 

But  though  Paul's  speech  was  plain  and  direct,  with  no  His 
regard  for  niceties  of  style,  there  were  times  when  it  must  ^"^"^'^'^^ 
have  risen  to  heights  of  real  eloquence.  We  are  justified 
here  in  drawing  conclusions  from  his  letters ;  for  these  were 
spoken,  not  written,  being  dictated  by  him.  Even  with  the 
limitation  of  slow  dictation,  Paul's  letters  show  us  passages 
where  his  soul,  kindling  at  the  great  truths  he  is  consider- 
ing, rises  to  speech  of  beauty  as  well  as  power.  Such  is  the 
simple  but  beautiful  song  of  love  that  lifts  itself  above  the 
controversies  of  the  Corinthian  church  (i  Cor  13).  Such  are 
the  passages  which  interrupt  again  and  again  his  argument 
in  the  letter  to  the  Romans.  "Who  shall  separate  us  from 
the  love  of  Christ?  shall  tribulation,  or  anguish,  or  persecu- 
tion, or  famine,  or  nakedness,  or  peril,  or  sword?  Even  as 
it  is  written, 

For  thy  sake  we  are  killed  all   the  day   long; 
We  were  accounted  as  sheep  for  the  slaughter. 

Nay,    in   all    these   things   we    are    more    than    concjuerors 
through  him  that  loved  us.    Eor  I  am  persuaded,  that  neither 


196  NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  things 
present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  powers,  nor  height,  nor 
depth,  nor  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us 
from  the  love  of  God,  which  is  in  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord" 
(Rom  8.  35-39). 

What  Paul  said  in  his  sermons  we  cannot  know  with 
certainty.  Not  one  of  them  lies  before  us.  His  letters  are 
not  sermons.  He  writes  in  these  to  companies  of  Christians, 
discussing  special  questions  of  faith  and  life.  We  find 
theology  in  them  and  practical  maxims,  but  this  is  quite 
different  from  what  he  would  bring  to  a  group  of  Gentiles 
to  whom  he  was  preaching  the  gospel  for  the  first  time. 
And  yet  we  are  not  left  without  some  real  knowledge.  Brief 
as  it  is,  such  a  summary  as  that  given  us  in  Acts  of  the 
sermon  at  Athens  is  suggestive  of  Paul's  method  in  a  par- 
ticular situation.  And  of  much  more  importance  are  some 
of  his  references  and  passages  in  the  epistles  (i  Thess  i.  9, 
10;  Acts  14.  15-17;  Rom  I.  18  to  2.  16;  I  Cor  15.  i-ii). 
Paul's  The  passages  just  noted  suggest  what  his  preaching  to  the 

message  Gcntilcs   was.     We  may   distinguish   certain  parts   in   this 

message  :  ( i )  Paul  proclaimed  to  them  the  living  God.  He 
probably  did  not  say  much  about  idol-worship.  He  did  not 
need  to.  That  was  a  dying  faith.  It  was  enough  to  bring 
to  them  the  word  of  that  God  who  had  made  the  world  and 
ruled  in  history ;  who  had  sent  his  prophets  and  in  these 
latter  days  had  sent  his  Son  to  show  forth  his  mercy,  whom 
also  he  had  raised  from  the  dead.  (2)  He  preached  to 
their  conscience.  With  searching  words  he  set  forth  their 
sin.  It  was  not  mere  sin  of  ignorance.  God  had  not  left 
himself  without  a  witness.  There  was  an  inner  law  that  he 
had  written  in  their  hearts.  But  they  had  darkened  this  light 
by  their  disobedience,  and  had  turned  to  their  sinful  desires. 
All  this  God  had  passed  over,  but  now  he  was  calling  men 
to  repent ;  the  day  of  judgment  for  men's  sins  was  at  hand. 
(3)  He  preached  Jesus  Christ.  However  Paul  began,  his 
sermon  always  tended  to  this.    Here  was  his  real  message. 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  197 

All  else  was  preparation.  "We  are  ambassadors  therefore," 
he  says,  "on  behalf  of  Christ,  as  though  God  were  entreating 
by  us :  we  beseech  you  on  behalf  of  Christ,  be  ye  reconciled 
to  God.  Him  who  knew  no  sin  he  made  to  be  sin  on  our 
behalf;  that  we  might  become  the  righteousness  of  God  in 
him"  (2  Cor  5.  20,  21). 

Here  Paul  had  reached  the  heart  of  his  message — "Christ,  Christ 
and  him  crucified."  For  him  this  was  no  mere  phrase  or  """''^^ 
formal  doctrine  as  it  is  so  often  to-day.  It  was  a  gift  of 
life  that  he  was  bringing  to  men,  and  of  life  here  and  now. 
That  was  what  it  had  meant  to  him.  It  had  changed  his 
whole  life.  He  probably  did  not  dwell  upon  Jesus'  words  and 
deeds  as  man.  He  told  how  God  had  sent  his  Son  to  men,  of 
his  death,  and  how  God  had  raised  him  from  the  dead.  Then 
he  set  forth  the  meaning  of  all  this.  It  was  God's  love  for 
men.  God  had  done  this  to  win  men  to  himself.  This  God 
in  his  mercy  was  willing  to  receive  them  all  as  his  children, 
to  give  them  forgiveness  and  life.  He  asked  only  faith  in 
return,  that  men  should  trust  him  and  give  themselves 
to  him.  That  life  was  theirs  here  and  now :  forgiveness, 
and  peace,  and  the  Spirit  of  God  in  their  hearts.  But 
besides  this  there  was  a  hope :  very  soon  this  Jesus  was 
to  return  and  set  up  his  final  and  full  kingdom  upon  the 
earth. 

There  is  no  indication  that  men  responded  to  this  message  Failures 
in  the  mass.  In  i  Cor  i.  18-31  is  given  a  picture  of  the 
failure  and  success  of  Paul's  appeal.  Paul  declares  that  his 
message  of  the  crucified  Christ  was  a  stumbling-block  to 
the  Jews.  They  wanted  signs,  that  is,  indications  of  power. 
How  could  they  accept  a  Messiah  who,  instead  of  over- 
throwing Israel's  enemies,  had  himself  suffered  death?  The 
Greeks,  he  said,  thought  his  preaching  foolishness.  They 
wanted  wisdom,  fine  rhetoric,  and  philosophical  speculation, 
or  strange  m\stcries  such  as  the  new  religions  from  the 
East  afforded.  Paul  brought  them  a  simple  message  of  a 
God  who  showed  his  love  to  men  and  called  them  to  repent. 


198 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Success 


Lower 
classes  won 


The 
brotherhood 


And  Others  would  draw  back  at  this  moral  demand,  the  call 
to  leave  sin,  to  live  a  new  life  of  righteousness. 

But  there  were  others  that  were  won :  some  of  them  by 
the  ethical  appeal,  smitten  in  their  conscience  by  his  search- 
ing words ;  many  of  them  by  his  message  of  the  living  God, 
the  God  of  love  and  power  who  could  save  them  from  their 
sins  and  from  death.  It  was  a  day  when  the  old  faiths  were 
breaking  down,  and  especially  upon  the  common  folks  the 
burdens  and  misery  of  life  rested  heavily.  What  men  wanted 
from  religion  was  help,  redemption  from  these  ills.  That 
was  what  Paul  promised :  Christ  the  power  of  God  and  the 
wisdom  of  God. 

Paul  tells  us  that  most  of  these  converts,  at  least  in 
Corinth,  were  from  the  poorer  classes.  Early  Christianity, 
as  a  whole,  was  a  lower  and  middle-class  movement.  "Not 
many  wise  after  the  flesh,  not  many  mighty,  not  many 
noble"  responded.  Every  great  and  permanent  religious 
movement  has  followed  this  order.  It  has  never  filtered 
down  from  an  upper  few,  but  has  had  its  origin  in  the  great 
masses  in  which  the  real  strength  of  any  generation  lies. 

The  little  bands  of  converts  Paul  gathered  together. 
Among  them  were  a  few  of  wealth  and  station.  Such  a 
convert  would  ofifer  his  house  as  a  meeting  place  for  the 
little  brotherhood.  Over  these  circles  Paul  watched.  To 
them  he  sent  his  messages,  rebuking,  exhorting,  comforting, 
teaching,  encouraging.  And  these  little  communities,  with 
their  spirit  of  love  for  each  other,  with  the  evident  joy  and 
peace  of  their  new  faith,  formed  in  turn  an  attractive  power 
that  drew  others  from  without.  At  the  same  time  their  mem- 
bers became  themselves  missionaries  to  propagate  the  new 
religion  with  zeal  and  enthusiasm.  And  when  they  moved 
to  other  places  they  kindled  new  fires.  It  was  not  Paul  and 
Peter  and  Barnabas  alone  that  spread  Christianity.  They 
were  but  leaders  of  a  great  company.  The  new  religion 
was  a  great  lay  movement.  Jesus  was  a  layman.  Paul  was 
a  layman,  who  never  asked  ordination  from  anybody.    And 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  199 

the  great  work  of  spreading  the  faith  in  the  first  generation 
was  done  by  men  and  women  whose  names  have  long  since 
been  lost  to  us,  but  whose  work  remains  to  this  day. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND   STUDY 

Read  Rom  15.  14-33.  Locate  upon  the  map  the  provinces  of 
Syria,  Cilicia,  Galatia,  Macedonia,  Illyricum,  Achaia,  Asia.  lUyricum 
lay  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  extending  north  to 
Italy.  The  region  is  marked  Dalmatia  upon  our  map.  We  have 
no  record  of  Paul's  work  there. 

As  to  Paul's  trade  and  support  of  self,  read  Acts  18.  1-4;  i  Cor 
9.   1-18. 

For  a  typical  synagogue  experience,  read  Acts  13.  13-16,  42-52. 

Concerning  Paul  as  a  speaker,  read  i  Cor  2.  Read  Rom  8.  35-39 
as  illustration  of  what  he  may  have  meant  by  i  Cor  2.  6,  12. 

As  to  Paul's  message,  read  i  Thess  i.  9,  10;  Acts  14.  15-17; 
Rom  I.  18  to  2.  16;  I  Cor  15.  l-li. 

Read  i   Cor  i.   18-31. 


CHAPTER    XXX 
GALATIA 


Paul's 
method 


First  journey: 
the  company 


The  seven  years  of  Paul's  world  mission  have  usually 
been  divided  into  three  missionary  "journeys."  This,  how- 
ever, is  misleading.  It  leads  us  to  think  of  Paul  as  wander- 
ing from  place  to  place,  stopping  a  few  days  or  weeks, 
preaching  a  few  sermons,  then  passing  on,  and  at  the  end 
of  each  tour  coming  back  to  Antioch.  Such  was  not  his 
method.  Paul's  plan  was,  rather,  to  take  the  great  Roman 
provinces  one  at  a  time,  and  to  stay  long  enough  in  each  to 
firmly  establish  the  work,  leaving  it  then  in  charge  of  others 
though  retaining  a  general  supervision.  It  is  true  his  stay 
was  often  cut  short  by  opposition.  But  he  spent  a  year  and 
a  half  in  Achaia  with  his  headquarters  at  Corinth,  and 
twice  that  time  in  Ephesus.  He  probably  spent  some  months 
in  Macedonia,  mainly  at  Philippi.  Antioch  practically  ceased 
to  be  his  headquarters  during  this  period.  It  is  a  better  plan 
of  study  to  take  up  the  provinces  one  at  a  time,  studying  in 
turn  Galatia,  Macedonia,  Achaia,  and  Asia. 

We  need  not  suppose  that  Paul  mapped  out  from  the 
very  first  his  whole  plan  of  campaign.  It  is  to  Cyprus,  the 
old  home  of  Barnabas,  that  they  turn  first,  and  their  atten- 
dant is  John  Mark,  the  cousin  of  Barnabas.  John  Mark, 
the  traditional  author  of  our  second  Gospel,  may  also  have 
come  originally  from  Cyprus.  But  it  has  been  noted  that  his 
home  was  in  Jerusalem,  where  his  mother's  house  was  a 
meeting  place  for  the  disciples.  Barnabas  had  for  years 
been  a  leader.  He  was  a  man  of  broad  and  unselfish  spirit. 
That  is  shown  by  the  sale  of  his  field,  the  money  for  which 
he  gave  to  the  Jerusalem  church,  and  by  the  way  in  which 
he  yielded  later  to  the  leadership  of  his  companion  in  this 
journey. 

200 


GALATIA  20I 

The  little  band  of  three  was  sent  forth  by  the  Antioch  Cyprus 
church  with  prayer  and  benediction.  From  Seleucia,  the 
port  of  Antioch,  to  Salamis  of  Cyprus,  where  they  landed, 
was  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles.  There  were 
a  good  many  Jews  in  the  island  and  here  at  Salamis  they 
preached  in  the  synagogues.  They  traversed  the  island  from 
east  to  west,  probably  something  over  a  hundred  miles  of 
journey.  Luke  has  but  one  incident  of  their  whole  stay,  the 
story  of  the  magician,  Bar-Jesus,  a  Jew  who  was  in  the 
company  of  the  proconsul,  Sergius  Paulus.  He  makes  no 
note  of  conversions,  and  we  learn  nothing  more  of  Cyprus 
beyond  the  fact  that  Barnabas  and  Mark  made  a  return 
visit  some  time  later  (Acts  13.  1-12). 

"Now  Paul  and  his  company  set  sail  from  Paphos,  and  Paulas 
came  to  Perga  in  Pamphylia :  and  John  departed  from  them 
and  returned  to  Jerusalem"  (Acts  13.  13).  In  these  words 
Luke  marks  the  change  that  now  comes ;  Paul  is  taking 
the  leadership  and  is  moving  on  to  wholly  new  fields.  Bar- 
nabas goes  with  him.  John  Mark,  perhaps  dissatisfied  that 
Paul  should  take  his  cousin's  place,  possibly  unwilling  to 
face  the  hardships  of  this  new  field,  turns  back  again.  From 
this  time  on  there  is  no  question  of  leadership.  Paul's  com- 
pany changes ;  he  has  many  helpers  through  this  period,  but 
there  is  only  one  directing  spirit. 

Paul  had  now  reached  the  mainland  with  his  face  toward  in  Gaiatia 
that  West  which  he  was  to  win  for  Christ.  For  the  present, 
however,  it  is  not  so  large  a  circuit  that  they  make.  They 
do  not  stop  in  Perga,  where  they  land,  but  press  on  to 
Antioch  of  Pisidia,  lying  straight  to  the  north,  about  a 
hundred  miles  inland.  Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe,  to  which 
thev  go  next,  lie  to  the  east  and  south  and  rather  close 
together.  Through  these  four  cities  they  then  retrace  their 
steps,  stopping,  however,  this  time  at  Perga.  They  set  sail 
not  from  Perga  but  from  Attalia  near  by,  and  so  return  to 
Antioch. 

We  must  not,  however,  measure  the  length  of  their  stay 


202 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Work  with 
Jews  and 
Gentiles 


Paganism 
at  Lystra 


in  Galatia  by  Luke's  brief  record.  The  apostles  must  have 
spent  some  months  at  least  in  this  visit.  We  read  of  their 
work  in  Antioch,  that  "the  word  of  the  Lord  was  spread 
abroad  throughout  all  the  region"  (Acts  13.  49).  Luke 
reports  that  they  stayed  a  long  time  at  Iconium,  and  that 
they  preached  not  only  in  Lystra  and  Derbe  but  in  the 
country  round  about  (Acts  14.  3,  6).  In  the  main  centers 
Paul  turned  first  to  the  synagogue,  as  usual,  for  here  in 
Galatia  also  there  were  Jews  to  be  found  in  the  larger  cities ; 
in  Antioch  and  Iconium  the  synagogues  are  specially  men- 
tioned. But  his  main  interest  was  in  the  Gentiles,  and  when 
he  went  into  the  "region  round  about,"  it  was  Gentile 
mission  work. 

One  incident  of  this  contact  with  paganism  Luke  gives  us. 
At  Lystra  Paul  healed  a  lame  man.  When  the  people  saw 
what  Paul  had  done,  they  began  shouting,  "The  gods  are 
come  down  to  us  in  the  likeness  of  men."  The  old  myths 
abounded  in  tales  of  gods  appearing  among  men,  and  it  was 
in  such  remote  places  that  the  old  faiths  were  strongest. 
Here  at  Lystra  they  cultivated  especially  the  worship  of 
Jupiter.  As  the  people  used  their  native  tongue,  the  disciples 
could  not  understand  their  cries,  and  before  they  knew  what 
was  happening  the  priest  of  Jupiter  was  present  with  his 
garlands  and  his  oxen  ready  to  make  a  sacrifice.  To  such 
people  Paul  had  to  bring  his  message.  The  words  that  Luke 
reports  in  this  connection  may  well  have  been  his  common 
mode  of  approach  in  speaking  to  pagan  hearers.  They  show 
his  skill  and  tact,  and  the  broad  sympathy  that  enabled  him 
to  come  into  contact  with  men  upon  whom  the  Jew,  proud 
of  his  faith,  would  commonly  have  looked  with  utter  scorn. 
"We  bring  you  good  tidings,  that  ye  should  turn  from  these 
vain  things  unto  a  living  God,  who  made  the  heaven  and  the 
earth  and  the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is :  who  in  the  genera- 
tions gone  by  sufifered  all  the  nations  to  walk  in  their  own 
ways.  And  yet  he  left  not  himself  without  witness,  in  that 
he  did  good  and  gave  you  from  heaven  rains  and  fruitful 


GALATIA  203 

seasons,  filling  your  hearts  with  food  and  gladness"  (Acts 

14.  15-17)- 

Traveling  through  such  a  countr}'  involved  great  hard-  Hardship  and 
ship,  heightened  by  Paul's  efforts  to  support  himself.  Here,  "'='""p^°^^ 
as  later,  Paul  met  the  opposition  of  the  Jews.  Once  his 
life  was  endangered.  After  the  brief  enthusiasm  at  Lystra, 
the  Jews  from  Antioch  and  Iconium  stirred  up  the  people 
against  him  and  he  was  stoned  and  left  for  dead.  It  was 
enough  for  Paul,  however,  that  in  all  these  places  he  was 
able  to  gather  his  groups  of  converts.  His  devotion  to  them 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  when  he  reaches  Derbe  in  the  East, 
he  does  not  push  on  to  Tarsus  and  home.  Despite  hardship 
and  the  treatment  he  has  received,  he  retraces  his  course, 
that  he  may  comfort  and  build  up  these  little  companies. 
They  in  turn  were  devotedly  attached  to  him.  How  they 
had  received  him  is  indicated  by  Gal  4.  12-20.  He  inti- 
mates there  that  he  had  had  plans  which  would  have  taken 
him  farther,  and  was  detained  in  Galatia  because  of  health. 
Perhaps  it  was  a  trouble  with  his  eyes.  In  any  case,  he  calls 
to  their  mind  how  they  received  him  "as  an  angel  of  God, 
even  as  Christ  Jesus,"  and  that  so  far  from  despising 
him  because  of  his  illness,  they  were  ready  to  pluck  out 
their  eyes  and  give  them  to  him.  As  for  him,  he  counts 
them  his  little  children,  whom  he  has  brought  forth  in  toil 
and  pain. 

It  seems  quite  certain  that  it  was  to  these  churches  that  The  letter  to 
the  epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  written.  We  have  already 
studied  the  first  two  chapters  of  this  letter  in  connection 
with  the  Jerusalem  conference.  We  do  not  know  when  it 
was  written,  probably  not  long  after  the  founding  of  the 
churches,  for  Paul  reproaches  them  with  removing  so 
quickly  from  his  gospel  (Gal  i.  6).  The  thought  of  the 
letter  is  not  always  easy  to  follow.  We  are  not  concerned 
to-day  about  Jewish  laws  and  rules  and  their  relation  to 
Christianity,  and  the  letter  at  first  does  not  seem  of  interest. 
But  it  is  different  when  we  appreciate  the  importance  of 


the  Galatians 


204 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The 
opposition 


The  answer: 
a  gospel 
from  God 


Salvation 
by  faith 


the  fight  that  Paul  is  waging  here.  It  was  not  the  question 
of  a  few  churches  in  Asia  Minor,  but  whether  Christianity 
was  to  be  a  universal  and  spiritual  religion  or  a  Jewish  sect. 
And  our  interest  increases  as  we  catch  the  earnestness  and 
passion  of  the  man,  which  make  these  words  live  for  us 
despite  nineteen  centuries  that  lie  between.  The  gospel  that 
he  preached  and  the  churches  that  he  had  founded  with  toil 
and  danger  of  life  he  now  saw  imperiled  by  men  who  dis- 
regarded the  Jerusalem  agreement  and  invaded  his  terri- 
tory. He  throws  every  resource  into  this  fight.  Logic, 
Scripture,  sarcasm,  bitter  denunciation,  tender  appeal — he 
uses  them  all  in  this  effort. 

His  enemies  were  not  Jews  but  Judaizing  Christians, 
bitterly  opposed  to  Paul  because  he  did  not  ask  his  converts 
to  keep  the  law.  Their  argument  seems  to  have  been  this : 
This  man  Paul  is  not  a  genuine  apostle.  The  real  pillar 
apostles  are  at  Jerusalem,  and  they  keep  the  law.  Jesus  is 
the  Jewish  Messiah,  foretold  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  You 
Gentiles  may  believe  on  him,  but  if  you  want  the  full  gospel, 
if  you  want  to  be  real  sons  of  Abraham,  you  must  keep  the 
sacred  law ;  and,  first  of  all,  you  must  be  circumcised.  To 
this  Paul  makes  reply  in  his  letter,  pouring  forth  a  stream 
of  passionate  declaration  and  entreaty,  with  no  concern 
for  order  or  phrase.  It  falls,  however,  into  three  main 
parts. 

1.  Paul's  assertion  of  his  independent  apostleship:  "My 
gospel  did  not  come  from  men  but  from  God,  and  there  is 
no  other  gospel.  I  never  took  instruction  or  authority  from 
the  other  apostles  at  Jerusalem.  But  they  have  recognized 
my  apostleship  to  the  Gentiles  and  have  given  me  the  hand 
of  fellowship"  (Chs.  i  and  2). 

2.  "The  Christian  is  saved  by  faith,  not  by  the  law : 
When  you  were  converted  you  received  the  Spirit.  It  was 
the  sign  of  your  new  life ;  but  you  received  it  because  you 
trusted,  not  because  you  had  kept  the  law.  Why  not  con- 
tinue the  same  way?    The  men  of  faith  are  the  real  sons  of 


GALATIA  205 

Abraham,  not  the  men  of  the  law.  The  law  by  itself  means 
simply  a  curse,  for  it  condemns  every  man  unless  he  keeps 
every  letter  of  it ;  and  that  no  man  can  do.  There  is  only 
one  thing  to  do,  to  trust  in  the  love  of  God  as  he  comes  in 
Jesus  Christ.  The  Christian  is  not  a  servant  keeping  a  law ; 
he  is  a  son  living  with  his  Father,  You  are  all  sons  of  God, 
through  faith  in  Christ  Jesus.  Do  not  let  anyone  make  a 
slave  of  you  again.  The  Christian  life  is  not  circumcision 
or  uncircumcision ;  it  is  faith  working  through  love"  (3.  i 
to  5.  12). 

3.  The  last  part  of  Paul's  letters  is  always  given  to  The  life 
practical  advice.  It  is  so  here.  He  has  said  that  Chris-  ° 
tianity  was  not  a  sum  of  laws  but  a  life  of  freedom  and  a 
new  spirit,  the  spirit  of  sonship.  That  freedom,  he  declares, 
does  not  mean  license.  It  is  simply  an  inner  life  that  we 
live,  instead  of  a  set  of  rules  imposed  from  without.  But 
we  must  live  out  that  inner  life,  we  must  walk  by  the 
Spirit.  "The  fruit  of  the  Spirit  is  love,  joy,  peace,  long- 
sufifering,  kindness,  goodness,  faithfulness,  meekness,  self- 
control"  (5.  13  to  6.  18). 

Characteristic  of  this  letter  is  its  close.  So  possessed 
is  Paul  with  the  great  question  at  issue  that  he  comes  back 
to  it  again.  The  last  words,  from  6.  11  on,  were  added 
by  his  own  hand.  The  rest  of  the  letter  had  been  dictated, 
as  was  his  custom.  If  the  sickness  to  which  he  refers  in  this 
letter  was  a  trouble  with  his  eyes,  it  would  explain  his 
using  an  amanuensis,  and  making  large  letters  when  he 
himself  wrote  (6.  11). 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Read  Acts  13  and  14. 

Follow  carefully  upon  the  map  the  line  of  journey.  Using  the 
scale  of  miles  make  an  estimate  of  the  total  distance  traveled. 

Name  in  order  the  Galatian  cities  visited,  and  one  or  two  inci- 
dents   in    connection    with    each. 

Give  a  brief  outline  of  Paul's  life  as  he  reports  it  in  Gal  i 
and  2. 


2o6  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

Give  the  outline  of  Paul's  argument  in  the  second  section,  Gal 
3.  I  to  5.  12,  by  means  of  five  or  ten  key  verses  selected  from  this 
passage. 

In  the  last  section,  5.  13  to  6.  18,  select  five  or  six  individual 
verses  which  seem  to  you  best  to  sum  up  Paul's  idea  of  the  Chris- 
tian life. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
MACEDONIA 

Macedonia  forms  the  next  stage  in  Paul's  campaign.  Macedonia 
Galatia  was  but  one  of  a  number  of  provinces  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  westernmost  of  these  was  called  Asia,  and 
held  a  number  of  cities  besides  its  great  center,  Ephesus. 
But  Luke  tells  us  that  Paul  on  his  journey  through  Asia 
Minor  felt  himself  under  a  definite  guidance  of  the  Spirit 
which  led  him  past  one  district  after  another  upon  his  way 
to  Macedonia. 

Of  the  journey  toward  Macedonia  we  know  little.  After  The 
Paul's  return  to  Antioch  from  Galatia,  he  proposed  to  g°^pa„°o^s 
Barnabas  that  they  start  out  to  revisit  the  churches  they 
had  established.  Barnabas  was  willing  but  wished  to  take 
John  Mark  along.  Paul  demurred  to  this,  since  Mark  had 
failed  them  on  the  previous  trip.  So  they  parted  company, 
Luke  says,  after  "a  sharp  contention."  Barnabas  and  Mark 
went  to  Cyprus.  Paul  started  out  with  Silas.  This  time 
he  went  by  land.  First  they  visited  the  churches  of  his 
old  field,  Syria  and  Cilicia.  From  Tarsus  they  pressed 
on  over  the  Taurus  range  to  the  little  communities  which 
he  had  just  founded  in  Galatia,  and  which  lay  not  far  be- 
yond. At  Derbe  he  secured  another  companion  for  his 
journey,  Timothy,  a  convert  of  his  previous  visit,  the  loyal 
and  affectionate  companion  and  helper  of  his  remaining 
journeys. 

So  Paul  came  at  last  to  Troas  and  to  the  Hellespont.  The  gospel 
Though  he  had  felt  himself  under  compulsion  of  the  Spirit.   ^^^^ 
we  need  not  assume  that  it  was  a  blind  leadership  for  Paul. 
He  saw  that  his  journey  was  tending  to  Europe.     Mace- 
donia and  Achaia  were  the  Roman  provinces   into  which 
the  Grecian  land  was  divided,  and  these  now  lay  before 

207 


2o8  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

him.  He  was  beginning  a  new  period  in  his  life.  His 
labors  till  then  had  not  led  him  far  afield.  Cilicia  was  the 
province  of  his  native  city  Tarsus.  Syria  lay  between  Tar- 
sus and  Jerusalem,  no  doubt  often  traversed  by  the  young 
man  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem  and  back.  Cyprus  could  be 
seen  in  clear  weather  from  Antioch.  Derbe,  in  the  east- 
ern end  of  Galatia,  was  not  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles'  journey  from  Tarsus.  He  had  never  gotten  far 
from  this  little  corner  of  the  Mediterranean,  near  whose 
angle  Tarsus  and  Antioch  lay.  Now  he  was  facing  not 
only  new  provinces  but  a  new  continent.  He  was  be- 
ginning not  only  a  new  epoch  in  his  life  but  a  new  epoch 
for  Christianity.  Born  in  the  Orient,  the  new  faith  was  to 
have  its  fullest  expression  in  the  West.  Here  it  was  to 
shape  mighty  organizations,  to  mold  new  institutions  of 
government  and  society,  and  centuries  later  to  start  out 
again  from  this  new  center  upon  a  conquest  of  the  world. 
To-day  the  cradle  of  Christianity  has  little  to  show.  The 
eastern  lands  of  Syria,  Asia  ]\Iinor,  and  Egypt,  where  first 
she  had  her  strength,  now  show  either  the  rule  of  the  Mos- 
lem or  a  Christianity  of  a  distinctly  inferior  type.  W^e 
cannot  but  ask  the  question:  What  if  there  had  been  no 
Paul  with  his  companions  to  carry  the  new  faith  west- 
ward in  that  early  day  of  its  enthusiasm  and  power? 
The  need  Paul   liimsclf   could  make   no   such   forecast   of   history. 

What  did  he  think  of  as  he  looked  out  for  the  first  time  upon 
the  famed  TEgean  Sea  and  upon  the  circle  of  historic  lands 
that  surrounded  it?  Did  he  think  of  Troy,  but  a  few  miles 
distant,  immortalized  by  Homer's  song?  Or  did  he  recall 
the  time  when  East  and  West  had  met  here  in  one  of  the 
crises  of  history,  when  Xerxes  had  marshaled  his  millions 
which  the  nobler,  bolder  life  of  the  West  had  driven  back 
again?  Or  did  he  think  of  Socrates  and  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle? Deeply  as  Paul  realized  the  importance  of  the 
new  step,  it  was  not  these  thoughts  that  filled  his  mind. 
What  he  saw  was  a  people  whom  all  their  art  and  phil- 


Greek  also 


MACEDONIA  209 

osophy  and  noble  history  had  not  been  able  to  save  from 
superstition  and  moral  degradation.  He  faced  them,  as 
later  on  toward  Rome  itself,  his  heart  filled  with  the  cour- 
age and  enthusiasms  of  a  great  message,  his  spirit  burdened 
with  the  sense  of  a  high  obligation.  These  lands  of  light 
needed  exactly  what  the  rude  folks  of  Galatia  did,  whom 
he  had  just  left  behind.  'T  am  debtor  both  to  Greeks  and 
to  Barbarians,  both  to  the  wise  and  the  foolish.  So  much 
as  in  me  lies  I  am  ready  to  preach  the  gospel  to  you 
also.  .  .  .  For  I  am  not  ashamed  of  the  gospel :  for  it 
is  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation  to  every  one  that 
believeth;  to  the  Jew  first,  and  also  to  the  Greek"  (Rom  i. 
14-16). 

Such  thoughts  must  have  prepared  him  for  the  vision  The  vision 
that  came  by  night,  the  man  of  Macedonia  who  stood  be-  ^°^  ^^^  '*" 
fore  him  saying,  "Come  over  and  help  us."  The  vision  at 
least  found  him  ready.  .\t  once  he  sought  a  ship  for 
Macedonia,  sailed  from  Troas  by  way  of  the  island  of 
Samothrace,  and  on  the  following  day  landed  at  Neapolis. 
It  seems  likely  that  Luke  joined  the  little  company  at  Troas, 
and  some  have  held  that  he  was  the  "man  of  Macedonia." 
In  any  case,  we  note  that  at  this  period  there  suddenly 
begin  the  so-called  "we"  portions  of  the  book  of  Acts 
(Acts  16.  10). 

In  various  ways  the   Macedonian  churches  occupied  a  The 
special  place  in  Paul's  work.     The  people  themselves  were  Macedonian 

.  .  churches 

of  a  sturdier,  smnpler  life  than  Paul  found  in  such  centers 
as  Corinth  and  Ephesus.  At  the  same  time,  though  there 
was  full  share  of  hardship  and  danger,  Paul's  enemies, 
the  Judaizers,  seem  largely  to  have  left  him  alone  in  this 
field.  There  was  a  solidity  about  this  work,  and  it  grew 
without  great  disturbance  or  crisis.  Above  all,  there  was  a 
closeness  of  personal  relation  between  the  churches  and  the 
apostle  which  does  not  appear  elsewhere  in  such  measure. 
Luke  tells  us  of  only  three  cities  where  Paul  stopped  on 
this  tour:    Philippi,  Thcssalonica,  and  Berea.     It  was  prob- 


210 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Patil's  special 
relations 
to  the 
Philippians 


ably  on  a  later  occasion  that  Paul  pressed  farther  north 
and  west  to  Illyrictim. 

Philippi  was  Paul's  first  stopping  place.     Apparently,  he 
arrived  the  first  part  of  the  week,  and  so  was  there  some 
days  before  the   Sabbath.     The  Jews,  because  they   were 
few  in  number,  had  no  s}nagogue  here  but  only  a  place 
of  prayer,   whose  location   at  the   riverside   was   for   con- 
venience in  the  matter  of  the  ceremonial  washings.     Here 
the  disciples  met  a  number  of  women  and  opened  conver- 
sation with  them,  and  here  Paul's  first  convert  in  Europe 
was  won — Lydia,  a  seller  of  purple.    Under  the  compulsion 
of  her  generous  hospitality,  Paul  broke  his  rule,  gave  up 
his  lodging  and  his  work,  and  was  entertained  with  his  party 
in  Lydia's  house.     So  began  the  relation  of  special  friend- 
ship which  sets  Philippi  apart  from  Paul's  other  churches. 
This  was  the  only  church  from  which  Paul  took  gifts.     So 
sure  was  he  of  their  friendship  that  he  knew  there  would 
be  no  misunderstanding.     They  sent  him  gifts  more  than 
once  during  his  stay  at  Thessalonica  which  followed ;  and 
a  little  later  at  Corinth  they  helped  him  again  (Phil  4.  15, 
16;  2  Cor  II.  8,  9).    One  of  the  last  pictures  that  we  have 
of  Paul  shows  him  a  prisoner  at  Rome  receiving  Epaphro- 
ditus,  a  member  of  the  Philippian  church,  who  brings  him 
again  their  love  and  their  bounty;  and  the  letter  which  he 
writes  them  in  acknowledgment  is  one  of  the  most  attract- 
ive of  his  epistles.     There  is  little  additional  that  we  know 
of  the  Philippian  church.     Paul  visited  it  later  on  several 
occasions.     We  know  the  names  of  some  of  its  members. 
Lydia  must  have  been  a  woman  of  some  means  to  be  able 
to  entertain  the  disciples  as  well  as  have  meetings  of  the 
church  in  her  house.     Besides  her  we  know  Epaphroditus, 
who  brought  the  gifts  to  Rome;   Synzygus.   whose  name 
is  translated  ''yokefellow,"  but  whom  Paul  is  probably  ad- 
dressing as  his  "true  Synzygos"  with  a  play  upon  the  name ; 
two  women,  Euodia  and  Syntyche;  and  Clement  (Phil  2. 

^5;  4-  1-3)- 


MACEDONIA 


211 


To  establish  such  close  relations  there  must  have  been  Paul  and  the 
a  stay  of  some  months.  Luke,  according  to  his  custom,  g°",  '"^^'"^ 
tells  only  of  the  beginning  of  the  work  and  of  the  way  in 
which  it  was  brought  to  a  close.  The  latter  was  not  due 
to  trouble  from  the  Jews,  but  to  a  conflict  with  superstition 
and  greed.  There  was  a  young  woman  in  the  city,  a  servant 
or  slave,  who  had  the  power  of  ventriloquism.  This,  as 
we  learn  from  Plutarch,  was  what  was  meant  by  calling  a 
person  a  python,  which  is  the  Greek  word  used  here. 
The  people  thought  that  the  girl  was  demon-possessed  and 
had  the  power  of  soothsaying.  The  girl  herself  was  prob- 
ably unbalanced  and  thought  the  same.  At  any  rate,  her 
masters  used  her  misfortune  to  make  money.  When  Paul 
by  his  commanding  word  healed  her,  her  masters  found 
their  source  of  profit  gone  and  in  revenge  brought  charges 
against  the  disciples. 

The  charge  was  that  of  bringing  in  new  and  unlawful  charges  and 
customs,  and  probably  referred  to  their  teaching  a  religion  '"p"^"'^'"^^ 
that  was  not  allowed.  Philippi  was  a  Roman  colony  with 
consequent  special  privileges,  and  was  exceedingly  proud  of 
the  fact.  On  such  a  serious  charge  Paul  and  Silas  were 
sent  by  the  inferior  judges  to  the  highest  magistrates,  who 
in  a  Roman  colony  were  the  praetors.  These,  without  process 
of  trial,  and  probably  without  even  giving  Paul  the  chance 
to  assert  his  Roman  citizenship,  caused  them  to  be  beaten 
and  flung  into  jail.  Luke  does  not  seem  to  have  been  with 
them  at  this  time,  the  "we"  portions  ending  just  before 
this.  He  gives  us,  however,  the  graphic  story  of  how  the 
earthquake  shook  the  prison  and  loosed  the  stocks  in  which 
Paul  and  Silas  had  been  held,  opening  the  prison  doors, 
and  of  the  jailor's  attempted  suicide  and  subsequent  con- 
version. 

Meanwhile   the   praetors   had   had   time   to   reflect   upon   Release  and 
their  summary  and  illegal  action,  and  in  the  morning  they     ^^" 
sent  the  lictors  to  the  jailor  with  word  to  let  the  prisoners 
go.     But  Paul  knew  too  well  what  his  right  of  citizenship 


212  NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

involved.  The  praetors  had  committed  a  double  illegality: 
first,  in  proceeding  without  a  trial;  second,  in  beating  a 
Roman  citizen,  who  by  special  law  would  be  exempt  from 
such  dishonoring  punishment  in  any  case.  Rome  had  a 
long  arm  and  a  regard  for  law,  as  these  officials  well  knew. 
So  there  was  nothing  for  the  proud  prsetors  to  do  but 
themselves  to  come  to  the  prison,  upon  Paul's  demand,  in 
person  to  lead  out  the  prisoners,  and  to  beseech  the  scorned 
Jews,  whom  they  had  but  yesterday  treated  so  contempt- 
uously, to  leave  the  city.  And  so  the  disciples  left;  not  in 
haste,  however,  for  they  first  went  to  the  home  of  Lydia, 
where  a  farewell  meeting  of  the  little  church  was  arranged. 
Thessaionica  From  Philippi  Paul  goes  to  Thessalonica,  passing  b}',  for 
some  reason  not  known  to  us,  the  cities  of  Amphipolis  and 
Apollonia.  Here  there  was  a  synagogue,  and  for  three 
weeks  Paul  was  permitted  to  speak  each  Sabbath  to  the 
Jews  gathered  there.  After  that  he  probably  worked  some 
time  longer  in  the  city  among  the  Gentiles.  His  converts 
numbered  only  a  few  Jews,  but  included  a  large  number 
of  proselytes,  "devout  Greeks,"  as  Luke  calls  them,  and  a 
number  of  "chief  women."  The  mission  was  a  notable 
triumph.  Here  again  it  was  Judaism  that  prepared  the  soil 
for  Paul,  and  we  need  not  wonder  that  the  Jews  who  did 
not  believe  were  stirred  to  anger  against  him.  He  was 
winning  away  the  Greeks  who  gathered  about  them,  and 
so  they  resorted  to  active  measures.  Not  wishing  to  appear 
alone,  they  succeeded  in  stirring  up  a  rabble  which  pro- 
ceeded to  the  house  of  one  Jason,  where  Paul  and  Silas 
lodged.  Not  finding  these,  they  took  Jason  and  some  other 
disciples  before  the  magistrates.  Their  charge  was  that 
the  Christians  proclaimed  Jesus  as  king,  which  showed 
disloyalty  to  Csesar.  The  charge  was  dismissed,  the  magis- 
trates simply  requiring  Jason  to  give  bond;  but  the  dis- 
ciples felt  that  the  danger  was  not  past  and  so  sent  Paul  and 
Silas  away  by  night. 

Two  letters  written  to  the  Thessalonians  have  been  pre- 


MACEDONIA  213 

served  for  us.  They  are  of  greatest  interest  because  they  The  oldest 
are  probably  the  oldest  writings  that  we  possess  from  Paul's  jg^^^^  ^'^ 
hand,  as  well  as  the  oldest  Christian  writings  of  any  kind. 
At  this  time  the  letter  to  the  Galatians  had  not  yet  been 
penned,  and  the  earliest  of  our  Gospels  was  not  written 
till  at  least  fifteen  years  later.  The  first  letter  is  so  in- 
timate, so  personal,  so  direct  and  practical,  that  it  gives 
us  a  fine  insight  into  the  apostle's  own  spirit  and  the 
method  of  his  work.  All  the  circumstances  add  to  the  in- 
terest. Paul  had  left  the  Thessalonians  suddenly,  without 
even  the  chance  for  farewell  as  at  Philippi.  His  stay  with 
them  had  not  been  long.  He  had  not  had  much  time  to 
instruct  them  in  the  new  faith,  and  most  of  them  were 
Gentiles.  Moreover,  they  were  even  then  facing  persecution. 
And  so  these  questions  filled  Paul's  soul :  Would  they 
stand  fast?  Would  they  hold  to  the  simple  truth?  Would 
they  lead  the  life  that  belonged  to  the  Christian  faith?  He 
had  tried  to  return  for  a  visit  but  failed.  When  he  reached 
Athens  he  could  endure  it  no  longer,  and  sent  Timothy 
back  to  them.  He  himself  pushed  on  to  Corinth,  and  to 
Corinth  Timothy  came  at  last.  His  news  filled  Paul's  heart 
with  joy.  True,  there  were  problems ;  they  could  hardly 
be  wanting  in  a  church  like  this.  But  the  church  was  stand- 
ing fast.  Paul  writes  his  letter  at  once,  a  letter  full  of  joy, 
of  tenderness  as  of  a  mother  toward  her  children,  and  of 
appreciation  of  their  faith  and  love  and  loyalty.  Not  all 
the  narratives  of  Acts  can  give  us  the  insight  into  Paul's 
heart  that  a  single  chapter  here  afifords. 

More  than  half  of  the  letter  is  taken  up  with  personal  Reminiscence 
reminiscence  and  suggestion,  which  is  the  more  remark- 
able when  we  realize  how  anxious  Paul  was  "to  perfect  that 
which  was  lacking  in  their  faith."  The  opening  words  show 
the  fine  tact  and  courtesy  which  this  man  of  deep  passion 
and  stern  will  could  show.  'T  always  thank  God  for  you 
in  my  prayer,"  he  begins,  "remembering  \  our  faith  and  love 
and   patience.        The    other   churches    in    Macedonia    and 


214 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Good  news 


Instruction 
and  advice 


Achaia  have  all  heard  of  how  the  gospel  came  to  you  in 
power,  of  how  you  turned  from  idols  to  the  living  God, 
and  how  you  have  stood  faithful.  And  you  know  what 
my  life  was  with  you.  There  was  no  flattery,  no  greed  for 
money  or  honor.  We  came  not  to  assert  authority,  but  to 
love  and  serve.  We  were  like  a  nurse  with  her  babes,  like 
a  father  with  his  children,  loving  you,  working  day  and 
night,  that  we  might  not  burden  you,  faithful  in  our  teach- 
ing, unblameable  in  our  lives.  And  you  took  our  word 
not  as  man's  word,  but  as  God's  word.  And  you  proved 
your  faith  by  suffering,  just  as  your  brethren  in  Judaea" 
(i  Thess  I.  I  to  2.  i6). 

"We  were  deeply  bereaved  in  leaving  you,  and  I  Paul  tried 
more  than  once  to  come  to  you  again.  So  we  finally  sent 
Timothy  from  Athens  to  encourage  you.  You  remember 
that  we  had  forewarned  you  of  such  trials.  But  when 
Timothy  came  just  now  with  the  good  news,  we  were  com- 
forted by  your  faith.  For  now  we  live,  if  you  stand  fast. 
You  are  our  glory  and  our  joy.  How  can  we  thank  God 
for  all  the  joy  that  we  have  in  you?  May  God  bring  us 
to  you  again.  May  he  make  your  hearts  abound  in  love, 
and  may  he  establish  you  in  holiness  until  our  Lord  Jesus 
shall  appear  with  the  saints"  (2.  17  to  3.  13). 

The  second  part  of  the  letter,  chs.  4  and  5,  Paul  de- 
votes to  instruction  and  practical  direction.  He  speaks 
first  of  the  sin  of  social  impurity,  which  the  Greeks  took 
so  lightly:  "God  called  us  not  in  uncleanness,  but  in  sanc- 
tification."  Then  he  takes  up  the  question  of  the  second 
coming.  This  teaching  had  evidently  stirred  up  great  in- 
terest. Some  were  inclined  to  neglect  their  work :  What 
need  of  toil  if  the  end  be  so  near?  Paul  admonishes  these 
to  be  quiet,  and  attend  to  their  business,  and  to  work  with 
their  hands,  that  they  may  thus  commend  the  new  faith 
to  those  without.  Others  were  concerned  about  their  friends 
who  might  die  in  the  interval  before  die  end.  Would  they 
not  be  excluded  from  the  Kingdom  when  Jesus  came?    Paul 


I^IACEDONIA  215 

said  no,  for  the  dead  in  Christ  were  to  rise  first.  Others 
were  eagerly  discussing  the  time  of  his  coming.  To  these 
Paul  says :  "The  time  no  one  knows.  It  is  enough  for 
us  to  watch  and  be  sober,  trusting  in  him  'who  died  for  us, 
that,  whether  we  wake  or  sleep,  we  should  live  together 
with  him.'  "  And  then  in  short,  strong  words  he  crowds 
together  the  many  things  he  would  say  to  them:  "Be  at 
peace,  admonish  the  disorderly,  encourage  the  faint-hearted, 
support  the  weak,  render  to  no  one  evil  for  evil,  follow 
after  that  which  is  good,  rejoice  always,  pray  without  ceas- 
ing, in  everything  give  thanks." 

It  is  not  hard  to  see  why  such  a  faith  should  spread,  a  conquering 
Here  was  the  dynamic  of  a  great  enthusiasm,  a  spirit  of  faith, 
devotion,  and  brotherhood.  And  joined  to  this  was  a  sober, 
earnest  life  with  the  noblest  moral  ideals.  And  these  two 
things  the  Roman  world  needed — a  living  faith  and  moral 
power.  What  Paul  did  here  he  did  everywhere :  he  showed 
that  these  were  inseparable  in  the  Christian  faith.  The 
second  letter  to  the  Thessalonians  must  have  followed  after 
a  very  brief  interval,  as  it  shows  substantially  the  same 
situation. 

Berea,  to  which  Paul  went  directly  from  Thessalonica,  Berea 
is  the  only  other  Macedonian  church  of  which  we  know. 
Berea  was  a  much  smaller  place,  and  it  is  likely  that  Paul 
stopped  there  in  order  to  be  near  to  Thessalonica,  hoping 
to  be  able  to  return.  Paul's  stay  could  not  have  been  very 
long,  for  the  Thessalonian  Jews  could  easily  follow  him. 
Here  at  Berea  he  had  a  larger  success  with  the  Jews.  They 
were  more  open  minded,  and  tested  Paul's  teaching  of  Jesus 
as  the  promised  Messiah  by  a  study  of  their  Scriptures.  As 
usual,  Paul  won  converts  from  among  the  proselytes,  both 
men  and  women.  In  all  such  cases  it  must  be  remembered 
that  these  were  not  necessarily  close  adherents,  but  that 
under  this  term  we  include  many  who  were  but  loosely  at- 
tached, though  their  minds  had  been  prepared  by  some 
knowledge  of  the  purer  Jewish  faith. 


2i6  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Read  Acts  15.  36  to  17.   15. 

Read  First  Thessalonians. 

Note  upon  the  map  Paul's  fields  of  labor  up  to  this  time  and 
their  location  relative  to  Tarsus. 

Trace  the  route  of  Paul's  journey  to  Macedonia;  note  the 
provinces  in  Asia  Minor  vi'hich  he  passed  by;  locate  Philippi,  Thes- 
salonica,  and  Berea. 

Write  a  synopsis  of  First  Thessalonians,  summing  up  each  para- 
graph of  the  letter  in  a  sentence  or  two. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
ACHAIA 

Berea  was  Paul's  last  stopping  place  in  the  northern  Paul  at 
province  of  Macedonia.  He  left  it  accompanied  by  some  *  ^°^ 
of  the  newly  won  disciples,  Silas  and  Timothy  not  being 
with  him.  Turning  at  first  toward  the  sea,  they  went 
finally  to  Athens,  and  here,  for  a  time  at  least,  Paul  seems 
to  have  been  left  alone.  What  stirred  him  most  in  this 
great  city  was  not  its  far-famed  works  of  art,  whose 
broken  fragments  still  move  our  wonder  to-day,  nor  yet 
its  traditions  of  a  noble  philosophy.  Of  that  noble  philos- 
ophy not  much  was  left.  The  Epicureans  whom  Paul  met, 
though  they  counseled  moderation  and  virtue,  found  the 
meaning  of  life  in  pleasure.  Stoicism  was  the  self-centered 
])hilosophy  of  a  few  strong  souls.  It  had  no  message  of  serv- 
ice to  fellow  men  and  no  word  of  help  from  God.  For  the 
Athenians  as  a  whole,  however,  these  questions  of  truth  or 
faith  had  become  simply  matters  for  fine  speech  and  in- 
teresting debate.  They  "spent  their  time  in  nothing  else, 
but  either  to  tell  or  to  hear  some  new  thing."  What 
moved  this  Jew  of  pure  faith  most  was  the  scene  of  shrines 
and  temples  and  statues,  "the  city  full  of  idols." 

Here  at  Athens  also  there  were  Jews,  and  Paul  met  them  The 
and  "the  devout  persons,"  or  proselytes,  at  the  synagogue,  fpeech^^ 
Athens,  however,  gave  him  a  freer  opportunity  to  speak 
to  the  people.  The  central  market  place  was  where  they 
were  accustomed  to  congregate,  and  here  the  apostle  spoke 
with  all  that  would  listen.  Luke  reports  to  us  a  special 
address  that  Paul  gave.  Scholars  are  not  agreed  whether 
the  Areopagus  was  a  hill  to  which  Paul  was  taken,  Alars' 
Hill,  or  whether  it  means  a  council,  or  court,  which  was  to 
pass   upon   Paul's   teaching.      Probably   it   was   the   latter. 

217 


2l8 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  few  words  that  Luke  gives  are  at  most  a  fragment 
or  a  summary.  But  even  so  they  are  very  suggestive.  With 
fine  tact  Paul  finds  a  point  of  contact,  the  altar  to  the 
unknown  God.  He  tells  them  of  the  God  of  all  nature 
and  all  life,  who  is  not  shut  up  in  temples.  This  brings 
him  to  his  message  of  Jesus,  through  whom  the  word  of 
righteousness  and  repentance  comes  now  to  men,  and  whom 
God  has  approved  by  his  resurrection. 

The  response  What  wc  have  is  really  the  introduction  to  Paul's  true 
message.  It  may  be  that  he  was  interrupted.  In  any  case, 
Paul  seems  to  have  found  no  large  response.  A  few  con- 
verts are  spoken  of,  but  we  learn  nothing  at  this  time  or 
later  of  a  church  at  Athens.  There  is  no  reason  to  be  sur- 
prised at  this.  Paul's  message  demanded  moral  earnest- 
ness and  humility.  Jesus  himself  had  set  these  as  the  gate- 
way to  life  in  such  passages  as  the  Beatitudes :  the  meek 
were  to  inherit  the  earth,  and  those  that  hungered  and 
thirsted  after  righteousness.  To  all  this  the  Athenian 
spirit  was  in  greatest  contrast. 

Corinth  From  Athens  Paul  goes  to  Corinth.     The  way  had  not 

yet  opened  for  him  to  go  back  to  Thessalonica.  It  pointed 
clearly  to  Corinth,  and  yet  Paul  at  the  beginning  seems  to 
have  contemplated  only  a  brief  stay  in  the  great  city.  It 
was  a  special  vision,  such  as  that  which  called  him  to 
Macedonia,  that  now  showed  him  that  he  was  to  remain 
a  longer  period  in  Achaia  before  going  north  again. 

Here  at  Corinth  Paul  was  again  at  one  of  the  centers 
of  the  empire.  Antioch,  Corinth,  Ephesus  were  the  great 
cities  that  he  touched  before  he  reached  Rome.  From 
Athens  to  Corinth  was  a  brief  journey,  but  a  great  change. 
Athens  was  the  quiet  city  of  culture,  proud  of  its  past, 
the  university  town.  Corinth  was  the  busy  metropoUs. 
It  had  been  destroyed,  had  lain  in  ruins  for  a  century, 
and  been  rebuilt  but  a  hundred  years  before.  The  old  pop- 
ulation was  largely  gone.  It  was  a  modern  city.  Roman 
colonists   were   here   and   Roman   officials,    for   it   was   the 


ACHAIA 


219 


capital  of  Achaia.  It  had  its  philosophers  and  rhetoricians, 
as  well  as  Athens.  It  had  a  strategic  position  for  trade, 
lying  on  the  isthmus  and  commanding  two  harbors.  Goods 
were  commonly  transhipped  to  avoid  the  dangerous  journey 
around  the  coast.  It  was  a  great  commercial  center  and 
had  large  wealth.  Like  all  such  cities  of  the  time,  it  had 
its  masses  of  the  poor,  vastly  outnumbering  all  the  rest.  A 
writer  somewhat  earlier  than  this  reports  four  hundred  and 
sixty  thousand  slaves.  It  was  upon  such  a  pyramid  of  op- 
pression and  wretchedness  that  the  wealth  of  the  great 
Roman  cities  rested.  And  that  wealth  brought  in  its  train 
profligacy  and  vice.  Corinth  had  even  more  than  her  share. 
Her  very  name  had  become  a  byword :  men  who  led  lives 
of  indulgence  and  vice  were  said  to  Corinthianize. 

It  was  in  a  state  of  depression  that  Paul  entered  the  Paurs  mood 
city.  His  work  in  Macedonia  had  been  broken  off.  He  ^°<i  "^^^^-^s^ 
had  not  been  able  to  get  back  to  Thessalonica.  He  had 
had  little  result  from  his  labor  in  Athens.  "I  was  with 
you,"  he  tells  the  Corinthians,  "in  weakness,  and  in  fear, 
and  in  much  trembling"  (i  Cor  2.  3).  If  he  was  stirred 
by  the  idolatry  of  Athens,  he  was  deeply  moved  here  by 
the  shame  and  sin  of  the  life  about  him.  What  could  he  do 
with  his  gospel  of  the  cross,  coming  to  these  Greeks  with 
their  wisdom  and  their  eloquence?  And  what  could  any 
gospel  do  with  a  city  so  sunken  in  sin?  If  such  questions 
came  to  Paul  in  moments  of  depression,  he  had  his  answer. 
He  may  have  distrusted  himself,  but  he  did  not  doubt  his 
message.  He  could  not  compete  with  these  Greeks  in  fine 
speaking;  he  had  only  what  they  would  call  the  foolish- 
ness of  the  cross.  But  that  message  he  would  give  simply, 
directly,  "not  in  persuasive  words  of  wisdom,  but  in  demon- 
stration of  the  Spirit  and  of  power."  "I  determined  not  to 
know  anything  among  you,  save  Jesus  Christ,  and  him 
crucified." 

The  result  justified   the   faith.      What  the   fine   rhetoric   The  gospel 
of  the  Corinthians  could  not  do,  or  the  philosophy  of  Athens,   °^  ^°^^^ 


220  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

that  his  simple  message  accomplished.  It  seemed  a  mes- 
sage of  weakness;  it  was,  in  fact,  a  message  of  power.  It 
seemed  foolishness ;  it  had  in  it,  in  reality,  the  deep  wisdom 
of  God.  Its  great  test  was  this,  that  it  could  meet  the  wick- 
edness even  of  Corinth,  and  overcome  it.  All  this  Paul 
brings  in  the  letter  which  he  writes  later  on  to  the  Corin- 
thians. We  understand  his  daring  speech,  his  paradoxes, 
by  remembering  these  circumstances.  "For  the  word  of 
the  cross  is  to  them  that  perish  foolishness;  but  unto  us 
who  are  saved  it  is  the  power  of  God.  Hath  not  God  made 
foolish  the  wisdom  of  the  world?  Jews  ask  for  signs,  and 
Greeks  seek  after  wisdom :  but  we  preach  Christ  crucified, 
unto  Jews  a  stumbling-block,  and  unto  Gentiles  foolishness ; 
but  unto  them  that  are  called,  both  Jews  and  Greeks,  Christ 
the  power  of  God,  and  the  wisdom  of  God"  (i  Cor  i.  18-25  ; 
2.  1-5).  Corinth  showed  Paul  the  power  of  the  new  faith 
over  against  the  worst  conditions  of  the  old  world. 

Paul's  work  Paul's  work  began  at  Corinth  much  as  elsewhere.     He 

first  sought  a  place  in  the  Jewish  quarter  where  he  could 
carry  on  his  trade.  Here  he  found  one  Aquila  with  his 
wife,  Priscilla.  The  emperor  Claudius  had  driven  the  Jews 
from  Rome  but  a  short  time  before  this,  and  these  people 
had  come  from  Rome  to  Corinth.  Whether  they  were 
already  Christians  or  not,  we  do  not  know.  Paul's  first 
reason  for  stopping  with  them  was  because  they  had  the 
same  trade.  Gifts  from  Philippi  supplemented  what  he 
thus  earned.  He  did  not  win  many  of  the  Jews,  for  the 
church  that  we  see  later  at  Corinth  was  mainly  Gentile. 
His  work,  when  he  left  the  synagogue,  was  carried  on  in  the 
house  of  a  proselyte  who  lived  next  to  the  synagogue,  and  the 
nearness  probably  helped  to  aggravate  the  anger  of  the  Jews. 
Paul  also  won  over  Crispus,  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue.  With 
these  he  gained  many  converts  among  the  Corinthians,  and 
quickly  established  a  strong  church. 

Before  GaUio        The  proconsul  of  the  province  at  this  time  was  Gallic, 
a  brother  of  the  noted  Stoic  philosopher  Seneca.    The  hos- 


ACHAT  A  221 

tility  of  the  Jews  culminated  at  last  in  an  effort  to  convict 
Paul  of  serious  charges  before  this  Gallio.  It  is  prob- 
able that  here,  as  elsewhere,  they  tried  to  make  it  appear 
that  there  was  something  politically  dangerous  in  Paul, 
'i'o  Gallio  it  was  a  quarrel  among  the  Jews,  and  he  drove 
them  out  witii  scant  patience.  The  Jews  were  never  pop- 
tilar.  In  this  case  their  discomfiture  emboldened  some  of 
the  Corinthian  bystanders,  who  improved  the  occasion  by 
beating  up  Sosthenes,  who  had  been  elected  ruler  of  the 
synagogue  to  succeed  Crispus  when  the  latter  became 
Christian. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Read  Acts  17.  13  to  18.   18. 

Write    a   paraphrase    of   Paul's    speech   at   Athens. 

Read  i  Cor  i  and  2. 

Note  what  Paul  has  to  say  in  praise  and  in  criticism  of  the 
Corinthians  in  these  two  chapters. 

From  what  Paul  says  in  these  two  chapters,  try  to  determine 
what  his  style  of  preaching  was.  and  the  qualities  which  it  possessed 
and  which  it  lacked. 


in  between 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
ASIA 

Asia  One  Roman  province  near  at  hand  Paul  had  not  yet 

touched,  that  of  Asia.  Paul  uses  this  name  always  in  the 
Roman  sense,  meaning  the  political  province  that  occu- 
pied the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor  and  included  many 
cities  besides  its  populous  capital,  Ephesus.  He  had  passed 
by  this  province  on  the  way  to  Macedonia.  He  had  estab- 
lished his  churches  in  Galatia  to  the  east  and  in  Greece  to 
the  west.     Now  he  turned  to  this  his  last  Eastern  field. 

Journeys  He  did  not,  however,  begin  his  work  at  once  upon  leav- 

ing Corinth.  First  he  planned  to  go  to  Jerusalem  and  report 
to  the  apostles  concerning  his  work.  Ephesus  was  upon 
his  way,  and  his  friends  Priscilla  and  Aquila  accompanied 
him  to  that  city.  These  remained  in  Ephesus,  evidently 
locating  for  their  business.  Paul  stopped  long  enough  to 
speak  in  the  synagogue  and  then  pressed  on,  shipping  from 
there  to  Cassarea,  from  which  place  he  went  overland  to 
Jerusalem.  On  the  way  back  he  stopped  with  his  old  friends 
at  Antioch  also,  but  the  stay  at  both  places  must  have  been 
brief.  His  real  work  lay  in  his  new  fields,  where  he  had 
had  such  marvelous  success.  First  of  all,  he  was  anxious 
to  see  his  Galatian  converts.  It  had  been  several  years 
since  he  had  left  them.  During  that  time  his  enemies  had 
been  busy.  His  letter,  which  we  studied,  had  been  written 
to  them  probably  from  Corinth  and  but  a  short  time  before 
this.  Now  he  visits  them  again  and  for  the  last  time.  His 
road  was  probably  through  Tarsus,  as  when  he  visited 
them  on  the  way  to  Macedonia.  On  that  journey  he  moved 
north  when  he  reached  Pisidian  Antioch.  This  time,  when 
he  left  them,  he  went  directly  west  toward  Ephesus  (Acts 
i8.  18-23;  19-  i)- 

222 


ASIA  223 

The  work  at  Ephesus  ranks  in  importance  with  that  at  scanty 
Corinth.  Unfortunately,  Paul  has  left  us  very  little  in- 
formation concerning:  it.  The  letter  marked  in  our  Bible 
"to  the  Ephesians"  was  probably  not  addressed  to  this 
church.  As  the  margin  of  our  American  Standard  Re- 
vision indicates,  the  oldest  manuscripts  omit  the  phrase 
"at  Ephesus"  from  the  first  verse.  In  any  case,  the  letter 
throws  no  light  upon  the  church  at  all,  and  lacks  wholly 
the  local  allusions,  in  which  Paul's  other  letters  abound. 
When  we  consider  that  Ephesus  was  Paul's  headquarters 
for  three  years,  the  account  in  Acts  is  quite  meager.  The 
Corinthian  letters  were  written  during  these  three  years, 
though  not  all  from  Ephesus,  and  gives  us  some  important 
items. 

To  these  scanty  sources  some  scholars  have  added  an-  As  to 
other  writing.  They  hold  that  the  last  chapter  of  our  °'^^'^^ 
letter  to  the  Romans  has  been  added  to  this  by  mistake  and 
is  really  a  note  which  Paul  addressed  to  the  Ephesian 
church.  The  reasons  for  this  can  be  readily  seen.  In  this 
chapter  is  a  long  list  of  names  of  persons  to  whom  Paul 
sends  greetings.  They  are  all  known  to  him  personally. 
Would  he  have  known  that  many  in  Rome,  w^iere  he  had 
never  been?  With  all  the  ease  of  travel  in  the  Roman  world 
this  would  not  be  likely  with  the  relatively  small  numbers 
of  a  Christian  community.  Three  of  these  names,  more- 
over, point  naturally  to  Ephesus.  The  first  two  are  Prisca 
(or  Priscilla)  and  Aquila,  who  were  with  Paul  in  Ephe- 
sus. A  third  is  Epaenetus,  "the  first  fruits  of  Asia,"  that  is, 
Paul's  first  convert  in  Asia,  which  with  Paul  means  Ephesus. 

What  we  have  here,  then,  in  Rom  16  is  a  writing  dif-  a  letter  of 
ferent  in  character  from  any  other  writing  of  the  New 
Testament.  It  is  one  of  the  "epistles  of  commendation" 
to  which  Paul  refers  in  2  Cor  3,  i.  These  were  very  common 
in  the  early  church,  especially  a  little  later.  Between  the 
little  Christian  communities  men  and  women  were  con- 
stantly passing  back  and  forth.     These  disciples  were  cared 


224 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Synagogue 
and  the 
school  of 
Tyrannus 


for  by  the  brothers  of  the  church  wherever  they  went,  and 
would  not  think  of  stopping  at  a  pubHc  inn.  Among  them 
would  be  leaders  of  the  church,  including  apostles  and  dis- 
ciples. The  churches  would  help  these  on  their  way,  as 
Paul  expected  help  from  the  Roman  church  on  the  way  to 
Spain.  To  prevent  imposture,  letters  of  commendation  or 
introduction  were  written,  and  were  either  sent  direct  or 
given  to  the  person  whom  they  concerned,  just  as  is  done 
to-day.  Paul's  enemies  in  Corinth  had  probably  brought 
such  letters  from  Jerusalem.  In  a  similar  way  Paul  writes 
to  commend  Timothy  and  later  on  Titus  to  the  Corinthian 
church,  and  letters  from  Ephesus  paved  the  way  for  Apol- 
los  when  he  went  to  Corinth  (Acts  i8.  2"]^.  Phoebe  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  church  at  Cenchreae,  one  of  the 
ports  of  Corinth.  It  may  have  been  during  Paul's  last 
three  months'  visit  at  Corinth  that  she  decided  to  go  to 
Ephesus.  Paul  sends  with  her  this  letter  of  introduction. 
At  the  same  time  he  takes  opportunity  to  send  greetings 
to  his  many  friends  there,  naturally  selecting  those  who 
were  most  prominent  in  the  church  or  with  whom  he  had 
close  personal  relations.  Among  the  latter  would  be  Rufus 
and  his  mother;  Paul  says,  "his  mother  and  mine,"  Prob- 
ably Paul  had  lodged  with  her  and  received  her  motherly 
care.  This  brief  note,  as  we  shall  see,  has  not  a  few 
suggestions  as  to  Ephesus. 

Paul  sought  his  first  opening  at  Ephesus,  as  usual,  in 
the  synagogue.  For  three  months  he  used  this  as  his  place 
of  teaching.  He  may  have  had  some  hope  of  winning  the 
Jewish  colony  entire  for  the  new  faith.  In  any  case,  they 
gave  him  a  ready  hearing.  Even  at  the  end  of  this  time 
he  was  not  compelled  to  leave,  and  we  hear  nothing  of 
open  opposition  from  the  Jews.  In  contrast  with  the  situ- 
ation elsewhere,  it  seems  that  during  this  whole  period  the 
converts  simply  met  in  the  synagogue.  When,  however, 
a  portion  of  the  Jews  refused  his  message,  Paul  separated 
the   disciples   and   used   the   school   of   Tyrannus    for   his 


ASIA 


225 


Apollos  and 
the  disciples 
of  John 


teaching.  This  use  of  a  pubHc  hall  was  also  unique.  It 
fits  in  with  the  general  picture  that  we  have  of  a  great 
success  on  Paul's  part  in  this  field. 

Still  another  new  feature  in  Paul's  experience  in  Ephe- 
sus  was  his  meeting  with  certain  men  who  had  become 
Christians  apparently  without  direct  contact  with  either  the 
Jerusalem  teaching  or  his  own.  One  of  these  was  Apollos, 
whom  Aquila  and  Priscilla  had  found  and  instructed  in 
the  Pauline  gospel  and  sent  on  to  Corinth  before  Paul 
arrived,  but  whom  we  find  later  there  with  Paul.  Then 
there  are  twelve  disciples  whom  Paul  himself  finds.  These 
men,  we  are  told,  knew  only  the  baptism  of  John.  It 
seems  probable  that  they  knew  of  Jesus'  life  teaching ; 
Apollos  "taught  accurately  the  things  concerning  Jesus." 
They  did  not,  it  would  seem,  know  Paul's  gospel — that 
Jesus  died,  that  his  death  was  for  the  sins  of  men,  that 
he  arose  again,  and  that  the  new  life  of  the  Spirit  was 
given  to  those  who  believed.  They  may  have  preached 
John's  word  of  repentance  and  judgment,  but  not  Paul's 
word  of  salvation  by  the  grace  of  God. 

Apollos  represents  a  new  type  that  was  to  have  great  The  Greek 
influence  in  the  church.  He  stands  for  the  Greek  spirit,  ^e"church 
with  its  eloquence,  its  rhetoric,  and  philosophy.  In  Alex- 
andria, whence  he  came,  this  spirit  had  entered  the  Jew- 
ish circles.  We  may  think  of  Apollos'  thought  and  style 
as  being  somewhat  like  that  of  the  letter  to  the  Hebrews, 
finding  in  the  Old  Testament  all  manner  of  types  and 
suggestions  of  the  gospel  and  setting  this  forth  in  beau- 
tiful language.  No  wonder  that  he  was  popular  with  the 
men  of  the  Greek  spirit  at  Corinth,  though  we  of  to-day 
would  prefer  the  "rude"  speech  of  Paul  (Acts  18.  24-28). 
The  Christian  message,  then,  even  if  in  imperfect  form,  had 
reached  such  widely  separated  places  as  Ephesus  and  Alex- 
andria apart  from  the  work  of  Paul  or  the  other  apostles. 
It  was  spreading  through  the  empire  by  many  roads  of 
which  we  know  nothing  to-day. 


226 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Two  early 
disciples 


Success  at 
Ephesus 


Opposition 


One  other  line  we  trace,  which  leads  apparently  to  Jeru- 
salem (Rom  i6.  7).  Paul  speaks  of  Andronicus  and  Junias 
as  fellow  Jews,  as  men  who  had  been  in  prison  with  him, 
as  men  who  had  been  Christians  before  Paul  was,  and  as 
apostles.  These  were  probably  of  the  original  company 
of  disciples  at  Jerusalem.  They  too  may  have  represented 
Christianity  in  Ephesus  before  Paul.  Now  we  find  them 
working  in  hearty   cooperation. 

All  this  suggests  a  picture  of  harmony  and  peace,  as 
well  as  of  great  success.  Paul  gathers  about  him  not  only 
many  converts  but  a  fine  group  of  workers.  These  carry 
the  message  throughout  the  province.  Epaphras  is  one  of 
these,  who  bore  the  gospel  to  Colossse,  Laodicea,  and  Hier- 
apolis,  cities  to  which  Paul  sends  messages  later.  Paul 
mentions  others  as  his  "fellow  workers" — Priscilla  and 
Aquila,  Urbanus,  women  like  Tryphsena,  Tryphosa,  and 
Persis  (Rom  16.  3,  9,  12).  Luke  declares  that. "all  they 
that  dwelt  in  Asia  heard  the  word  of  the  Lord,  both  Jews 
and  Greeks"  (Acts  19.  10).  As  an  illustration  of  Paul's 
success,  he  tells  how  the  people  who  had  been  convinced 
by  his  message  brought  their  books  of  magic  and  burned 
them,  just  as  we  read  a  few  years  ago  of  the  great  bon- 
fires of  pipes  made  by  the  Chinese  who  had  given  up  opium. 
Luke  declares  that  the  value  of  these  books  was  fifty  thou- 
sand pieces  of  silver.  What  we  gather  from  Paul's  letters 
points  to  the  same  large  results  from  the  Ephesian  labors. 
He  declares  that  "a  great  door  and  effectual"  was  opened 
to  him.  Because  of  his  labors  he  cannot  at  first  go  to 
Corinth  himself.  That  he  should  stay  three  years  at  Ephe- 
sus is  sufficient  proof  of  the  fruitful  field  that  he  found. 

But  there  are  darker  sides  to  the  picture  also.  While 
we  know  little  of  detail,  it  is  evident  that  Paul  nowhere 
faced  greater  foes  or  was  in  greater  personal  danger  than  at 
Ephesus.  It  is  not  the  Jews  and  their  plots  that  trouble  Paul 
here,  for  he  seems  to  have  met  from  these  considerable 
response  and  little  resistance.    It  is,  rather,  paganism  and  its 


ASIA  227 

business  interests.  The  ])ri(lc  of  Ephesiis  was  its  magnificent 
temple  of  Diana,  or  Artemis,  whose  foundations  were  some 
three  hundred  and  thirty  feet  long,  which  was  surrounded 
by  a  magnificent  double  row  of  columns,  and  boasted  among 
its  adornments  the  work  of  such  artists  as  Praxiteles.  Tlie 
central  treasure  was  the  image  of  the  goddess,  supposed  to 
have  fallen  from  heaven.  Certain  strange  characters  in- 
scribed upon  this  image  were  held  to  have  magic  power. 
The  religions  of  Asia  Minor  were  on  a  very  low  plane, 
and  Ephesus  was  a  center  of  the  immorality  and  super- 
stition. This  had  its  profitable  side.  A  big  business  was 
done  in  reproductions  of  the  shrine,  in  copies  of  the  magical 
characters  found  upon  it,  and  in  other  magical  books  and 
articles.  Paul's  preaching  had  made  inroads  into  this  traffic. 
It  was  not  merely  a  question  of  his  converts,  but  of  the 
popular  influence  he  might  exert  as  his  teaching  spread. 
Demetrius  the  silversmith,  who  organized  the  mass  meet- 
ing in  protest,  may  have  been  the  head  of  his  guild  for 
that  year.  He  and  his  friends  secured  the  popular  sup- 
port by  the  appeal  to  religious  passion  and  prejudice  and 
local  pride.  The  local  officials,  however,  seem  to  have 
been  distinctly  favorable  to  Paul's  position,  aside  from  fear- 
ing the  results  if  such  disorders  should  be  reported  to 
Rome.  Paul,  however,  was  in  no  personal  danger  in  this 
case,  the  disciples  and  the  local  officials  both  persuading  him 
to  remain  away. 

He  himself  reports  far  more  serious  dangers.  He  Personal 
gives  us  no  definite  statement  as  to  what  the  perils  "^^sers 
were,  but  it  is  evident  that  his  very  life  was  at  stake. 
He  declares  that  Priscilla  and  Aquila  "laid  down  their  own 
necks"  for  his  life  (Rom  16.  4).  He  writes  the  Corinthians 
from  Ephesus  about  standing  in  jeopardy  every  hour,  and 
adds :  "If  after  the  manner  of  men  I  fought  with  beasts 
at  Ephesus,  what  doth  it  profit  me  [that  is,  if  the  dead 
are  not  raised]?"  i  Cor  15.  30-32).  Later  he  says,  "We 
would  not  have  you  ignorant,  brethren,  concerning  our  af- 


of  the  work 


228  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

fliction  which  befell  us  in  Asia,  that  we  were  weighed  down 
exceedingly,  beyond  our  power,  insomuch  that  we  despaired 
even  of  life :  yea,  we  ourselves  have  had  the  sentence  of 
death  within  ourselves,  that  we  should  not  trust  in  our- 
selves, but  in  God  who  raiseth  the  dead:  who  delivered  us 
out  of  so  great  a  death"  (2  Cor  i.  8-10).  It  seems,  then, 
that  Paul's  life  was  more  than  once  in  danger,  and  he  ma\' 
even  have  fought  with  the  wild  beasts  in  the  arena.  In 
any  case,  here  w^as  a  ministry  upon  a  larger  scale  both 
of  success  and  of  danger  than  had  marked  Paul's  work 
before. 
The  extent  The  Asian  ministry  thus  marks  another  stage  in  Paul's 

career.  His  enemies  declared  that  he  had  persuaded  the 
people  "not  alone  at  Ephesus,  but  almost  throughout  all 
Asia."  The  interest  of  the  Asiarchs,  prominent  provincial 
officials,  showed  that  his  influence  had  reached  high  quar- 
ters. Churches  like  those  at  Colossse,  Laodicea,  and  Hier- 
apolis,  founded  by  his  helpers,  looked  to  him  as  their  apostle. 
The  lower  strata  he  reached  also  as  in  Corinth,  for  he 
refers  to  the  slaves  connected  with  two  households,  those  of 
Aristobulus  and  Narcissus  (Rom  16.  10,  11).  As  elsewhere, 
the  church  was  divided  into  smaller  groups  which  met  in 
particular  private  houses.  Thus  Priscilla  and  Aquila  had 
a  "church  in  their  house"  (Rom  16.  3-5).  When  Paul 
speaks  of  "Asyncritus,  Phlegon,  Hermes,  Patrobas,  Hernias, 
and  the  brethren  that  are  with  them,"  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
here  too  he  is  speaking  of  groups  that  met  in  different 
houses  and  mentioning  the  leaders  of  five  such  circles.  In 
any  case,  it  was  a  large  and  strong  church  that  he  left  be- 
hind. It  is  interesting  to  note  the  number  of  women  here 
mentioned,  remembering  that  the  list  is  not  one  of  members 
but  of  leaders  in  the  church  and  special  friends.  Here, 
as  usual,  Priscilla  is  named  before  her  husband  Aquila. 
However  conservative  Paul  may  have  been  in  principle, 
in  practice  it  is  evident  he  gave  generous  recognition 
to   the   noble   women   of   his   churches,   and   these   women 


ASIA  229 

played  a  large  part  in  the  church  of  the  empire  from  the 
beginning. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Acts  18.  18-23;  19.  I.  Trace  Paul's  journey  from  Corinth  to 
Jerusalem  and  back  to  Ephesus.  Note  the  former  fields  of  labor 
through  which  he  passes. 

Rom  16.  Of  those  to  whom  Paul  sends  greetings  here,  which 
seem  to  be  simply  his  personal  friends?  State  the  total  number 
of  names  and  the  proportion  of  women. 

Acts  18.  24  to  19.  41.  Tell  the  story  of  Demetrius  and  the  mob. 
This  theater  had  a  seating  capacity  of  about  twenty-five  thousand. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE  LIFE  OF  AN  EARLY  CHURCH— I 


Occasion 
of  the 
Corinthian 
letters 


The  moral 
problem  of 
the  early 
church 


Of  no  one  of  the  early  churches  have  we  so  full  a  knowl- 
edge as  of  the  church  at  Corinth.  We  owe  this  to  the 
preservation  of  the  letters  to  this  church  which  are 
contained  in  our  New  Testament.  Paul  was  working  at 
Ephesus  soon  after  leaving  Corinth.  The  two  cities  were 
joined  by  a  great  highway  of  the  sea,  with  vessels  con- 
stantly passing  back  and  forth,  auvl  it  was  not  hard  for  Paul 
to  keep  in  touch  with  the  church.  Paul  had  received  a 
letter  from  the  Corinthians  and  had  written  one  in  return, 
both  lost  to  us.  A  second  letter  was  written  him  by  the 
church,  asking  his  judgment  on  various  questions.  About 
the  same  time  Chloe,  apparently  a  well-to-do  Christian 
woman,  sent  some  of  her  servants  or  slaves,  also  presumably 
Christians,  and  these  informed  Paul  of  serious  conditions 
that  had  arisen  in  tlie  life  of  the  church.  Later  three  other 
members  of  the  church  came,  Stephanas,  Fortunatus,  and 
Achaiacus,  the  two  last  named  being  probably  slaves  of  the 
first.  Apollos  too,  who  had  been  working  at  Corinth,  came 
to  Paul  at  Ephesus,  and  Paul,  himself  prevented  from  going 
by  the  importance  of  his  new  work  at  Ephesus,  had  sent 
Timothy  as  his  personal  representative.  All  this  had  taken 
place  before  Paul  sat  down  to  write  the  letter  which  we  now 
have.  It  is  a  good  instance  of  Paul's  care  of  his  churches 
and  at  the  same  time  a  picture  of  the  freedom  of  travel 
which  characterized  the  age. 

More  important  than  these  incidents  is  the  picture  of  the 
life  of  a  Christian  church  in  the  Roman  world,  and  the 
problems  which  the  Christian  religion  faced  in  thus  estab- 
lishing itself.  Christianity  was  a  new  way  o^  living.  Paul's 
first  message  to  men  concerned  their  relation  to  God:  "We 

2.30 


THE  LIFE  OF  AN  EARLY  CHURCH         231 

beseech  you  on  behalf  of  Christ,  be  ye  reconciled  to  God" 
(2  Cor  5.  20).  But  he  did  not  stop  with  this.  The  new 
religion  was  a  life  to  be  lived  out  among  men.  It  meant 
a  new  conduct  and  character.  It  was  a  moral  revolution. 
"If  any  man  is  in  Christ,  he  is  a  new  creature:  the  old 
things  are  passed  away;  behold,  they  are  become  new" 
(2  Cor  5.  17).  Paul's  greatest  task  was  to  show  his  con- 
verts what  this  new  life  meant.  The  old  religions  had  little 
to  say  about  right  living.  Often  their  influence  lay  upon 
the  wrong  side.  The  temple  of  Aphrodite  at  Corinth,  for 
example,  had  a  thousand  women  attached  to  it  who  were 
giving  themselves  to  a  life  of  shame  as  part  of  the  service 
of  the  goddess.  The  Corinthian  converts  had  no  trouble 
in  accepting  the  new  doctrines  and  sacraments,  but  it  was 
not  so  easy  to  teach  them  that  the  new  faith  meant  purity 
and  sobriety  and  uprightness.  Nor  was  that  all.  Paul  had 
the  further  task  of  teaching  them  what  the  new  spirit 
meant  in  the  thousand  and  one  activities  and  relations  of 
life.  These  Christians  had  to  live  in  the  pagan  world  and 
touch  its  life  on  every  side.  The  political  life,  the  social 
life,  the  business  life  was  pagan  in  spirit  and  practice.  They 
could  not  leave  this  world ;  how  should  they  live  the  new 
life  in  the  midst  of  it? 

In  all  these  matters  Paul  shows  a  marvelous  patience.  Paul's  swu 
He  knows  he  is  dealing  with  children.  They  are  still  babes,  "* 
and  he  does  not  expect  everything  at  once.  He  is  skillful 
too.  He  holds  up  the  highest  principles,  but  he  shows  the 
greatest  tact  and  common  sense  in  application.  All  fanatical 
extremes  are  absent.  More  wonderful  still  is  his  faith.  He 
knows  with  what  materials  he  has  to  deal  in  the  Corinthian 
church.  In  writing  them  he  mentions  a  long  list  of  those 
who  cannot  enter  the  Kingdom  of  God — fornicators,  idola- 
ters, adulterers,  efifeminate,  abusers  of  themselves  with  men, 
thieves,  covetous,  drunkards,  revilers,  extortioners.  And 
then  he  adds,  "And  such  were  some  of  you"  ( i  Cor  6.  9-11). 
Moreover,  most  of  his  converts  were  taken  from  the  lower 


232  NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

social  classes,  from  the  great  proletariat  of  Corinth.  And 
yet  before  such  folks  Paul  holds  the  highest  ideals  of  Chris- 
tianity, nor  abates  from  them  one  whit.  It  is  for  these 
people  that  he  sets  forth  his  lofty  ideal  in  the  marvelous 
chapter  on  love  (i  Cor  13).  He  believes  that  even  such 
people  can  be  made  over  in  the  spirit  of  Christ. 

The  problems  that  appear  in  the  Corinthian  letters  may 
be  taken  up  under  two  heads:   (i)   Moral  problems;   (2) 
Problems  of  church  life.    We  shall  take  these  up  in  the  order 
noted. 
Against  The  first  problem  that  Paul  had  to  handle  was  a  pecul- 

impunty  j^j.jy  distressing  one.     Apparently  the   servants  of   Chloe 

informed  him  of  this,  that  a  member  of  the  church  had 
actually  married  his  stepmother  upon  his  father's  death. 
And  the  church  had  permitted  this  without  proceeding 
against  this  member.  That  does  not  mean  that  they  de- 
fended such  a  deed.  Individually  they  may  have  condemned 
it,  but  Paul  demands  that  this  man  must  be  put  out  of  their 
fellowship.  With  such  men  they  might  have  to  associate 
in  the  world  without,  but  the  Christian  fellowship  had  a 
different  meaning  (i  Cor  5.  1-13).  Back  of  this  lay  the 
broader  question,  the  general  matter  of  social  immorahty. 
Here  was  the  prevalent  sin  of  the  Grecian  world,  for  which 
Corinth  was  especially  notorious.  Paul's  warnings  do  not 
imply  that  this  sin  had  appeared  in  the  church,  but  it  shows 
how  great  a  task  Christianity  had  that  the  apostle  should 
deem  it  necessary  to  solemnly  warn  the  church  upon  this 
subject.  "Be  not  deceived.  The  unrighteous  shall  not  in- 
herit the  kingdom  of  God."  It  was  an  echo  of  the  old 
prophetic  message :  Religion  means  righteousness.  But  Paul 
went  further.  The  Christian  was  one  who  had  received  the 
Spirit  of  God.  How  could  he  dishonor  the  body  in  which 
that  Spirit  lived  ?  "Know  ye  not  that  your  body  is  a  temple 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  is  in  you,  which  ye  have  from 
God?"  That  was  Christianity's  first  fight  in  the  Roman 
world:  it  stood  for  purity  of  Hfe  (i  Cor  6.  9-20). 


mamage 


THE  LIFE  OF  AN  EARLY  CHURCH         233 

Paul's  next  question  took  him  into  the  business  world.  The  gospel 
He  found  his  Corinthian  converts  indulging-  in  sharp  busi-  *°^  business 
ness  practices,  defrauding  each  other,  and  going  to  law. 
Has  Christianity  anything  to  say  as  to  business?  Paul  did 
not  go  into  the  question  in  detail.  He  had  no  such  occasion 
for  this  as  we  have  now.  But  he  made  clear  the  principle: 
Religion  has  something  to  say  about  business.  Brotherhood 
must  be  taken  into  business  life.  Neither  fraud  nor  un- 
righteousness nor  extortion  has  any  place  in  the  kingdom 
of  God  (i  Cor  6.  i-ii). 

Christianity  had  to  meet  the  question  of  the  family.  The  As  to 
Corinthians  had  raised  several  questions  as  to  marriage. 
There  was  an  extreme  party  in  the  church,  it  appears,  whose 
effort  to  be  holy  had  carried  them  so  far  that  they  did  not 
believe  in  marriage  or  in  maintaining  the  relation  of  hus- 
band and  wife.  For  them  everything  that  had  to  do  with 
the  flesh  was  sinful.  Paul  denies  this  asceticism.  Marriage 
is  not  sinful,  though  he  feels  that  with  the  end  so  near  at 
hand  it  would  be  better  for  Christians  to  remain  unmarried, 
as  he  is.  Others  apparently  thought  that  a  Christian 
husband  or  wife  whose  partner  was  unconverted  should 
take  a  divorce.  This  too  Paul  declares  against  ( i  Cor  7. 
1-40). 

In  the  matter  of  womanhood  Christianity  also  rendered  The  place 
a  great  service  in  setting  up  a  new  ideal.  Social  immorality 
in  that  day  was  widely  prevalent,  as  we  have  seen.  Divorce 
was  common  and  on  the  increase.  The  father  was  not  only 
the  head  of  the  household  but  the  absolute  master  and  ruler. 
Children  and  women  had  no  rights.  A  woman  had  no 
standing  before  the  law  except  as  belonging  to  some  man, 
father,  husband,  brother.  In  Greece  education  and  freedom 
belonged  only  to  the  class  of  women  called  hctairce,  who 
purchased  these  privileges  with  their  honor.  In  some  points 
Paul  was  still  the  conservative  Jew :  The  head  of  the  woman 
is  the  man,  he  sa\s,  and  the  woman  is  the  glory  of  the  man 
as  the  man  is  the  image  and  glory  of  God  (i  Cor  11.  3,  8, 


of  child  and 
woman 


234 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Christianity 
and  slavery 


As  to  meat 
offered  to 
idols 


9).  But  Paul  knows  the  deeper  Christian  truth — that  every 
human  personahty  is  sacred :  "There  can  be  neither  Jew  nor 
Greek,  there  can  be  neither  bond  nor  free,  there  can  be  no 
male  and  female;  for  ye  all  are  one  in  Christ  Jesus"  (Gal 
3.  28).  Here  lies  in  principle  that  position  toward  which 
woman  has  been  moving  since  that  day.  For  the  woman, 
as  for  the  child  and  the  slave,  Christianity  meant  emancipa- 
tion. All  were  alike  children  of  God,  and  the  words 
"brother"  and  "sister"  set  them  all  upon  the  same 
plane. 

Slavery  Paul  touches  upon  with  only  a  few  words  ( i  Cor 
7.  20-24).  He  bids  the  slave  remain  contented  in  his  posi- 
tion. Christianity  was  not  a  political  movement.  It  would 
have  had  short  shrift  in  the  Roman  world  had  it  been  such. 
But  it  had  a  message  that  concerned  slavery.  ( i )  The  slave 
knew  himself  as  Christian  to  be  a  free  man :  "He  that  was 
called  in  the  Lord  being  a  bondservant,  is  the  Lord's  freed- 
man."  (2)  Within  the  Christian  Church  the  slave  was  a 
brother.  The  servants  of  Chloe  and  the  slaves  of  Stephanas 
came  to  Paul  not  as  mere  letter-carriers,  but  as  trusted 
Christian  brothers.  Within  the  church  it  was  brother  and 
sister,  not  master  and  servant.  When  Paul,  later  on,  writes 
from  Rome  the  charming  letter  to  Philemon  and  sends  back 
the  runaway  slave  whom  he  has  won  to  Christ,  he  sends  him 
back  "no  longer  as  a  servant  [slave],  but  more  than  a 
servant,  a  brother  beloved."  It  sometimes  happened,  indeed, 
in  the  early  church  that  slaves  held  the  highest  office.  (3) 
In  these  ideals  Christianity  set  free  the  silent  forces  which 
were  at  last  to  make  slavery  impossible. 

Paul's  discussion  of  the  question  of  the  eating  of  meat 
that  had  been  sacrificed  to  heathen  gods  shows  how  difficult 
the  situation  of  the  Christian  was  in  the  midst  of  the  life 
of  a  pagan  world.  When  an  animal  was  sacrificed  it  was 
customary,  after  certain  portions  had  been  given  to  the 
priests,  to  use  the  rest  for  a  feast  which  might  be  held  in 
the  temple  or  at  home.     Sometimes  the  meat  was  ofl^ered 


answer 


THE  LIFE  OF  AN  EARLY  CHURCH         235 

for  sale  in  the  market.  To  such  feasts  the  Christians  would 
be  invited  by  their  unbelieving  friends,  or  they  might  un- 
wittingly buy  such  meat  in  the  markets.  Was  it  wrong  to 
partake  in  either  case? 

Paul  does  not  answer  with  a  simple  yes  or  no.  He  is  not  Paul's 
giving  rules ;  he  is  setting  up  principles  of  conduct.  He 
discusses  these  questions  in  two  passages  here  (i  Cor  8. 
1-13;  10.  14-33)  and  in  Rom  14.  He  declares  (i)  that 
idols  are  nothing  at  all.  The  meat  ofifered  to  idols  cannot 
therefore  be  unclean.  The  Christian  by  his  knowledge  is 
lifted  above  these  things.  When  you  go  into  a  market  tc 
buy  meat,  therefore,  or  when  you  are  at  the  table  of  a 
friend,  you  need  not  stop  to  inquire  whether  the  meat  offered 
you  has  been  sacrificed  to  an  idol.  (2)  But  there  is  some- 
thing besides  a  man's  own  conscience,  and  that  is  his  brother. 
There  are  Christians  who  have  not  gained  this  knowledge. 
To  them  eating  meat  that  has  been  offered  to  idols  seems 
like  falling  back  into  the  old  idol-worship ;  and  your  eating 
may  lead  them  to  do  what  would  be  against  their  own 
conscience  and  so  injure  them.  In  such  case  the  brother  is 
more  important  than  the  meat.  The  meat  is  a  small  matter. 
"The  kingdom  of  God  is  not  eating  and  drinking,  but 
righteousness  and  peace  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Spirit."  And 
your  knowledge  is  not  the  most  important  thing.  There  is 
something  greater  than  knowledge,  and  that  is  love.  "Knowl- 
edge puffeth  up,  but  love  buildeth  up."  Therefore,  says 
Paul,  "If  meat  causeth  my  brother  to  stumble,  I  will  eat 
no  flesh  for  evermore,  that  I  cause  not  my  brother  to 
stumble."  (3)  But  while  an  idol  is  nothing  at  all,  and  meat 
offered  to  idols  is  not  as  such  unclean,  it  is  quite  a  different 
matter  for  Christians  to  participate  in  the  old  idol  feasts. 
How  should  the  Christian  go  from  the  Lord's  Supper  over 
to  some  pagan  festival,  as  though  by  accepting  Christ 
he  had  simply  added  another  god  and  another  feast? 
Flee  idolatry,  Paul  says ;  it  is  nothing  but  the  worship  of 
demons. 


236  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING    AND    STUDY 

As  to  social  morality,  read  i  Cor  5.   1-13;  6.  9-20. 
As  to  marriage,  read  i  Cor  7.  1-40. 
As  to  slavery,  read   i   Cor  7.  20-24. 

As  to  pagan  feast  and  meat  offered  to  idols,  read  i  Cor  8.  1-13; 
10.  14-33;  Rom  14. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

THE  LIFE  OF  AN  EARLY  CHURCH— H 

The  second  class  of  problems  that  Paul  met  at  Corinth  Problems  of 
were  those  that  concerned  the  common  church  life.  The  t*»^  •=^"'^<=^ 
new  religion  was  not  simply  an  individual  life  but  a  life  in 
fellowship.  Upon  that  fellowship  Paul  laid  the  greatest 
stress.  In  fighting  the  enemies  of  this  fellowship  he  knew 
that  he  was  fighting  for  Christianity  itself.  The  Roman 
world  of  that  day,  like  our  own  world,  was  strongly  indi- 
vidualistic. The  old  bonds  were  breaking  and  men  were 
seeking  the  life  of  individual  freedom.  That  was  especially 
true  of  the  Greeks.  Like  our  own  age,  they  were  inclined 
to  underestimate  religion  as  a  social  fact  and  Christianity 
as  a  fellowship.  This  fellowship  Paul  saw  assailed  by 
several  dangers. 

There  was  the  trouble  that  came  from  the  "advanced"  As  to 
women  of  the  congregation  (i  Cor  ii.  2-16;  14.  33-36), 
They  had  heard  from  Paul  that  Christianity  meant  not  the 
bondage  of  rules  but  the  freedom  of  the  spirit.  Why  should 
they,  then,  submit  to  the  old  restrictions  upon  women,  such 
as  that  which  required  them  to  wear  a  veil  in  public  and 
forbade  them  taking  part  in  open  meetings?  The  question 
was,  in  fact,  the  same  as  that  with  the  progressives  who 
felt  they  could  eat  meat  offered  to  idols.  It  was  a  purely 
individualistic  point  of  view,  which  thought  only  of  the 
individual  conscience  and  liberty.  What  these  women  failed 
to  consider  was  the  eflfect  upon  others  and  upon  the  church 
as  a  whole.  There  was  only  one  class  of  Corinthian  women 
which  appeared  unveiled  upon  the  street  and  spoke  in  public, 
and  that  was  the  hcfaircv.  For  Christian  women  to  do  this 
meant  not  only  to  shock  some  of  their  Christian  friends, 

2Z7 


women 


238 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Church 
suppers  and 
the  Lord's 
Supper 


As  to 

spiritual 

gifts 


l)iit  to  bring  suspicion  upon  the  Christian  community.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  Christians  were  often  slandered  simply 
because  they  were  a  mingled  company  of  men  and  women 
meeting  in  private.  Paul's  argument,  indeed,  is  not  one 
that  would  appeal  to  us  to-day.  He  argues  more  as  a  Jewish 
rabbi  than  as  a  Christian  apostle.  But  his  practical  con- 
clusion is  both  sane  and  Christian.  The  only  mistake  has 
been  to  try  to  make  a  permanent  law  for  the  church  out  of 
his  practical  counsel  to  the  Corinthians. 

The  same  individualism  appears  in  the  troubles  in  con- 
nection with  the  church  suppers.  It  was  apparently  the 
common  Christian  practice  to  meet  in  a  fellowship  supper, 
just  as  has  been  noted  at  Jerusalem.  As  a  part  of  this 
supper  or  in  connection  with  it,  there  was  a  memorial  of 
the  Last  Supper  of  the  Lord  with  his  disciples,  what  we 
call  the  Lord's  Supper,  or  the  H0I3'  Communion.  There 
were  probably  prayers  offered  and  at  a  given  time  such 
words  were  repeated  as  Paul  gives  here  (i  Cor  11.  24,  25), 
and  bread  and  wine  were  passed  to  all  present.  The  Cor- 
inthian church  was  made  up  mostly  of  the  poor.  It  had, 
however,  some  people  of  means.  Some  of  these  brought  to 
these  suppers  their  rich  and  abundant  foods  and  wines,  and 
feasted  by  themselves  while  the  poor  brethren  looked  on 
hungry  and  envious.  They  were  simply  turning  the  whole 
into  such  a  pagan  feast  as  they  had  long  been  accustomed 
to.  It  was  pure  selfish  individualism  without  thought  of 
the  idea  of  fellowship  or  the  feelings  of  their  poor  brethren. 
"This  is  not  a  mere  feast."  Paul  says ;  "it  is  a  supper  with 
deep  and  solemn  meaning.  It  is  proclaiming  the  Lord's 
death;  think  of  that  and  of  your  brethren.  If  you  are 
hungry,  eat  at  home"  (i  Cor  11.  17-34)- 

The  quarrel  about  "spiritual  gifts"  was  simply  another 
manifestation  of  the  same  spirit,  joined  to  a  certain  pride 
and  love  of  display  which  was  characteristically  Greek 
(i  Cor  12  and  14).  In  Paul's  teaching,  as  with  the  Jeru- 
salem apostles,  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  to  believers  was  the 


THE  LIFE  OF  AN  EARLY  CHURCH         239 

great  fact  of  the  new  life.  Their  religion  was  not  simply 
a  hope  of  what  Jesus  would  do  upon  his  second  appearing ; 
it  was  a  great  possession  reaUzed  in  this  life.  This  gift 
was  the  source  of  that  spirit  which  marked  so  strongly  the 
early  church,  its  joy  amid  all  persecution,  its  peace  and  love 
and  hope,  and  its  inextinguishable  enthusiasm.  The  pos- 
session of  this  Spirit  manifested  itself  in  different  gifts,  or 
forms  of  Christian  activity  and  usefulness.  Prophecy  and 
speaking  with  tongues  were  two  forms  of  these  gifts  which 
attracted  especial  attention  in  the  Corinthian  church. 
Prophecy  was  not  prediction,  but  a  form  of  earnest  speech 
or  exhortation  upon  spiritual  themes  to  which  the  speaker 
felt  himself  driven  as  by  a  kind  of  inspiration.  The  speaking 
with  tongues,  as  we  have  seen,  was  a  kind  of  rapt,  ecstatic 
utterance  of  an  incoherent  kind,  whose  meaning  was  under- 
stood neither  by  speaker  nor  listener. 

Here  was  a  great  power  in  the  early  church ;  but  here  was  The  danger 
also  the  possibility  of  serious  danger.  The  enthusiasm 
might  easily  lead  to  fanaticism  and  disorder,  and  the  spiritual 
gifts  to  spiritual  pride.  The  test  of  true  religion  with 
Jesus  was  obedient  trust  in  God  and  the  loving  service  of 
men.  In  the  new  atmosphere  these  simple  homely  qualities 
were  in  danger  of  being  lost.  These  conditions  actually 
existed  in  the  Corinthian  church.  Nothing  shows  Paul's 
sanity  and  moral  insight  better  than  the  way  in  which  he 
faced  them. 

The  Corinthians,  it  seems,  were  very  proud  of  their  gifts,  Pride  and 
especially  of  the  speaking  with  tongues.  To  order  and  ^''^°^^^^ 
reverence  they  paid  no  attention  in  their  meetings,  nor  did 
they  care  whether  their  prophesying  and  speaking  with 
tongues  was  of  any  help  to  others.  Each  man  thought  that 
it  was  of  first  importance  when  he  felt  moved  by  the  Spirit 
to  make  himself  heard.  Nor  did  one  wait  upon  the  other. 
Two  or  three  of  the  men  with  tongues  would  be  speaking 
their  strange  medley  at  the  same  time.  It  is  easy  to  imagine 
what  visitors  thought  when  they  came  in,  especially  when 


240  NEW   TESTAxMENT   HISTORY 

they  saw  women  taking  part  in  these  disorders.     With  all 
this  there  was  naturally  a  good  deal  of  pride  and  conten- 
tion. 
Paul's  Here,  again,  Paul  does  not  simply  give  commands.     He 

principles  g^^g  ^p  gj-g^t  Christian  principles.  ( i )  True  Christian  gifts 
have  their  source  in  one  Spirit,  the  Spirit  of  God.  There 
should,  therefore,  be  no  conflict  and  no  question  of  distinc- 
tion of  greater  and  less.  Rather  there  should  be  perfect 
unity.  The  church  is  the  body  of  Christ.  As  the  body  has 
different  members — feet,  hands,  and  the  like — so  the  church 
needs  different  gifts.  But  all  belong  together  and  each 
must  seek  to  serve  the  whole,  not  to  live  for  himself.  We 
are  members  one  of  another.  (2)  The  purpose  of  the  gifts 
is  service.  The  test  of  their  value  is  the  good  they  do. 
This  test  shows  the  gift  of  tongues  to  be  of  very  little  value. 
The  man  himself  may  enjoy  it,  but  it  does  not  help  others, 
since  they  do  not  understand;  and  it  injures  the  church, 
since  any  visitors  hearing  it  simply  say,  "These  people  are 
mad."  But  if  these  people  hear  a  prophet  (that  is,  a  preacher 
or  exhorter),  then  the  truth  strikes  home  to  their  con- 
science, and  they  declare,  "God  is  among  you  indeed."  (3) 
The  final  principle  Paul  illustrates  in  the  thirteenth  chapter, 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  writings  in  all  Christian  literature. 
He  calls  it  the  most  excellent  way,  the  gift  that  is  above  all 
the  other  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  the  spirit  of  love.  For  the 
Corinthians  the  presence  of  the  Spirit  meant  the  strange 
utterance  and  the  striking  accomplishment.  For  Paul  it 
meant  moral  character  and  life,  and  these  he  sums  up  in 
the  word  which  Jesus  used,  love.  All  your  showy  gifts,  he 
declares,  and  all  the  knowledge  of  which  you  are  so  proud, 
is  worth  nothing  without  this  spirit  of  love.  And  this  love 
is  very  different  from  the  spirit  you  have  shown.  It  is 
patient  and  kindly ;  it  has  no  jealousy  or  pride ;  it  is  modest 
and  humble,  full  of  hope  and  of  faith  in  men.  And  when 
all  your  tongues  and  prophecies  are  done  away,  this  love  will 
last  (i  Cor  13). 


THE  LIFE  OF  AN  EARLY  CHURCH         241 

The  last  question  that  Paul  takes  up  is  that  of  the  resur-  The 
rection.  He  had  learned  that  some  among  the  Corinthians  ^^^'^'^®<=*'°'^ 
were  casting  doubt  upon  the  idea  of  a  resurrection  from  the 
dead.  To  the  Greek  mind  it  seemed  absurd  to  talk  of  the 
body  being  raised  again  when  it  had  wasted  away  in  the 
earth.  Here  was  the  Greek  spirit  at  work  again,  logical, 
critical,  speculative,  setting  up  a  philosophy  of  its  own  in 
the  place  of  Christianity.  The  issue  for  Paul  was  not  a 
matter  of  one  form  of  doctrine  as  against  another.  It  was 
Christianity  itself  as  a  historical  fact  that  was  at  stake : 
was  there  a  living  Christ,  and  had  God  really  come  to  men 
in  him?  He  brings  forth  three  considerations,  (i)  What 
I  have  preached  to  you,  the  Christ  who  died  and  rose  again, 
is  the  faith  of  the  whole  church,  of  the  first  disciples  and 
all.  "Whether  then  it  be  I  or  they,  so  we  preach,  and  so 
ye  believed"  (i  Cor  15.  i-ii).  (2)  We  need  not  be 
troubled  about  the  physical  body  that  decays  or  how  it  shall 
be  raised.  It  is  not  the  natural  body  that  is  raised  but  a 
spiritual  body,  such  as  it  will  please  God  to  give  (15.  35- 
49)'  (3)  Without  this  hope  we  have  nothing.  If  there 
be  no  resurrection,  then  there  is  no  living  Christ.  And  if 
there  be  no  living  Christ,  then  our  faith  is  empty.  But  now 
the  faith  is  ours  with  its  glorious  hope.  "Death  is  swallowed 
up  in  victory.  O  death,  where  is  thy  victory?  O  death, 
where  is  thy  sting?  Thanks  be  to  God,  who  giveth  us  the 
victory  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ"  (15.  12-19,  29-32. 
50-58). 

Such  were  the  dangers  that  confronted  the  early  church  Christianity's 
from  without  and  within:  persecution  of  enemies,  the  con-   Problems  and 

*  power 

stant  environment  of  a  debased  life  with  which  they  still 
had  to  associate,  the  pull  of  the  old  habits,  the  peril  of 
fanaticism,  and  the  great  gulf  between  the  lofty  Christian 
principles  and  these  folks  taken  out  of  the  lowest  classes  of 
paganism.  Why  did  not  Christianity  fail?  Because  it  had 
forces  greater  than  all  these.  Deeper  than  the  jealousy  and 
strife  was  the  new  spirit  of  brotherhood  and  love  that  bound 


242 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  question 
of  Second 
Corinthians 


The  four 
letters 


them  together.  Stronger  than  the  lure  of  old  evil  in  the 
world  about  or  in  their  own  hearts  was  the  purifying  and 
transforming  power  of  the  new  Spirit.  And  not  the  least 
part  of  the  answer  to  the  question  is  the  leadership  of  such 
a  man  as  Paul,  whose  marvelous  religious  experience  and 
power  was  joined  to  such  wisdom  in  practical  leadership. 

We  have  little  knowledge  of  the  later  history  of  the  Corin- 
thian church.  The  second  letter,  as  we  have  it,  is  very 
hard  to  understand.  The  first  nine  chapters  are  very 
different  from  the  last  four.  The  former  are  full  of  a  spirit 
of  kindliness  and  confidence  and  suggest  a  perfect  reconcilia- 
tion between  Paul  and  the  church.  The  last  four  chapters 
take  us  into  an  atmosphere  of  strain  and  strife,  where  Paul 
is  fighting  for  his  apostleship.  It  seems  probable  that  in 
later  years,  when  Paul's  writings  were  collected,  two  or 
three  letters  were  joined  together  here.  At  that  later  time 
men  did  not  care  about  the  history  of  the  church,  but  simply 
to  have  Paul's  words. 

Following  out  this  idea,  scholars  have  suggested  that  we 
probably  have  four  letters  from  Paul  represented  in  our 
two  epistles.     They  would  divide  them  as  follows: 

1.  The  first  letter:  2  Cor  6.  14  to  7.  i.  This  is  con- 
sidered a  fragment  of  the  first  letter  that  Paul  wrote,  it 
being  his  answer  to  a  question  from  the  church  as  to  their 
relation  to  unbelievers  as  indicated  in  i  Cor  5.  9-13.  Note 
how  these  verses  interrupt  the  order  of  thought;  7.  2  fol- 
lows naturally  upon  6.  13. 

2.  The  second  letter :  our  First  Corinthians.  As  we  have 
seen,  this  was  written  in  answer  to  further  questions  from 
the  church  and  because  of  information  that  Paul  had  re- 
ceived from  messengers. 

3.  The  third  letter:  2  Cor  10  to  13.  The  Corinthians 
had  not  followed  Paul's  directions.  Timothy  had  failed  in 
his  visit.  The  strife  of  the  parties  had  continued  and  Paul's 
Judaizing  enemies  had  come  in  and  attacked  his  authority 
^nd  his  apostleship.    Even  when  Paul  visited  them  person- 


THE  LIFE  OF  AN  EARLY  CHURCH         243 

ally  from  Ephesus  he  had  met  opposition,  and  from  one  man 
at  least  even  insult.  This  third  letter  is  Paul's  defense  and 
assertion  of  his  authority.  It  is  an  impassioned  appeal,  and 
should  be  placed  beside  his  letter  to  the  Galatians.  He 
appeals  to  his  labors,  exceeding  those  of  all  others  (11.  16- 
33).  He  points  to  his  experiences  (12.  1-6).  He  calls  to 
witness  the  wonderful  work  he  had  done  among  them 
(12.  11-13).  He  denounces  his  enemies  in  the  sharpest 
terms  (11.  13-15),  He  declares  that  he  will  come  a  third 
time  to  them,  and  that  then  he  will  not  spare  (13.  i-io). 

4.  The  fourth  letter :  2  Cor  i  to  9,  omitting  the  fragment 
of  six  verses  marked  above  as  the  first  letter.  It  seems  that 
Paul  had  made  his  third  visit,  that  his  enemies  gave  way, 
that  the  church  punished  the  offender  referred  to  in  i  Cor  5, 
and  the  old  relations  were  established.  The  echo  of  the 
past  controversies,  and  the  deep  feelings  they  had  stirred, 
may  still  be  heard  in  these  fine  chapters ;  but  the  letter  itself 
is  full  of  Paul's  usual  spirit  of  joy  and  peace  and  confidence, 
with  expressions  of  deep  and  tender  affection.  It  has  also 
some  of  his  most  beautiful  expressions  concerning  his  gospel 
and  his  ministry:  "It  is  God,  that  said.  Light  shall  shine 
out  of  darkness,  who  shined  in  our  hearts,  to  give  the  light 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of  God  in  the  face  of  Jesus 
Christ"  (2  Cor  4.  6).  "Now  the  Lord  [that  is,  Jesus]  is  the 
Spirit :  and  where  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is,  there  is  liberty. 
But  we  all,  with  unveiled  face  beholding  as  in  a  mirror  the 
glory  of  the  Lord,  are  transformed  into  the  same  image  from 
glory  to  glory,  even  as  from  the  Lord  the  Spirit"  (3.  17,  18). 
"God  was  in  Christ  reconciling  the  world  unto  himself" 
(5.  19).  "And  he  died  for  all,  that  they  that  live  should  no 
longer  live  unto  themselves,  but  unto  him  who  for  their 
sakes  died  and  rose  again"  (5.  15). 

Paul's  work  at  Corinth  was  not  in  vain.    The  Corinthians   The  later 
formed  one  of  the  strongest,  if  not  the  strongest  Pauline   co^tj,^* 
church.    One  of  the  earliest  Christian  writings  that  we  have 
outside  the  New  Testament  is  a  letter  written  to  the  Corin- 


244  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

thians  about  fifty  years  after  the  founding  of  the  church  by 
one  Clemens,  writing  for  the  church  at  Rome.  Clemens 
speaks  of  the  church  in  highest  terms :  "Who  ever  dwelt 
even  for  a  short  time  among  you,  and  did  not  find  your 
faith  to  be  as  fruitful  of  virtue  as  it  was  firmly  established  ? 
Who  did  not  admire  the  sobriety  and  moderation  of  your 
godliness  in  Christ?  And  who  did  not  rejoice  over  your 
perfect  and  well-grounded  knowledge?"  From  his  refer- 
ences it  appears  that  Paul's  name  was  held  in  highest  esteem 
and  his  letters  read  in  the  church. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING    AND    STUDY 
As  to  the  position  and  conduct  of  women,  read   i   Cor   ii.  2-16; 

14.  33-3^- 

As  to  the  Lord's  Supper  and  the  church  fellowship  meals,  read 
I   Cor  II.   17-34. 

As  to  spiritual  gifts  and  the  disorders  in  the  church  services, 
read  i  Cor  12,  13,  and  14. 

As  to  the  resurrection,  read  i  Cor  15. 

Read  the  four  chapter  letter,  2  Cor  10  to  13;  select  from  these 
chapters  all  that  concerns  Paul's  life,  experience,  and  person,  and 
write  this  out  in  an  ordered  statement. 

Read  through  the  last  letter,  2  Cor  i  to  9 ;  select  five  or  six  verses 
aside  from  those  quoted  in  this  chapter,  which  reflect  Paul's  con- 
ception of  his  ministry  and  of  the  gospel. 


CHAPTER   XXXVI 

PAUL  AS  PASTOR  AND  CHURCH  ORGANIZER 

Paul  was  no  mere  wandering  preacher  moving  from  place  The 
to  place,  making  a  few  converts  and  then  passing  on.  Rather  ^^^°^  ^^'^ 

^  °  .  .         .  administrator 

he  was  a  great  religious  statesman ;  his  aim  was  to  plant 
Christianity  throughout  the  empire.  To  this  end  he  moves 
from  province  to  province:  Syria,  Cilicia,  Galatia,  Mace- 
donia, Achaia,  Asia.  For  this  reason  he  enters  upon  the 
great  cities ;  we  can  mark  the  steps  of  his  work  by  their 
names :  Damascus,  Tarsus,  Antioch,  Corinth,  Ephesus, 
Rome.  For  this  reason  too  we  find  Paul  keeping  his  churches 
under  most  careful  supervision.  Paul  is  a  great  pastor  and 
administrator.  Acts  shows  us  the  preacher ;  the  letters 
reveal  the  pastor.  They  give  us  a  most  lifelike  picture  of 
Paul's  watchful  care  of  his  churches  and  of  the  constant 
thought  and  labor  which  this  involved.  Letters  are  passing 
back  and  forth ;  messengers  are  being  received ;  one  and 
another  of  Paul's  helpers  are  sent  on  special  missions ;  or 
Paul  himself  is  planning  to  revisit  the  old  fields.  A  single 
church  like  that  at  Corinth  received  at  least  four  letters 
and  three  visits  from  Paul  himself,  besides  sending  letters 
and  messengers  again  and  again  and  being  visited  by  Titus 
and  Timothy. 

There  is  no  finer  aspect  to  Paul's  character  than  his  The  pastoral 
pastoral  spirit.  Here,  as  so  often,  we  must  stop  and  marvel  ^"'"^ 
at  the  many-sidedness  of  the  man.  This  great  statesman 
founding  an  empire,  this  missionary  of  restless  zeal,  this 
profound  thinker  whose  ideas  have  shaped  the  Christian 
thought  of  centuries,  was  at  the  same  time  the  thoughtful 
pastor  and  friend,  bearing  upon  his  heart  the  care  of  all 
the  little  communities  that  he  had  established.  His  glowing 
words  on  love  are  no  mere  rhetoric  (i  Cor  13).    This  love 

245 


246  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

is  the  mainspring  of  his  own  life.  The  moving  catalog  of 
his  hardships  and  sufferings  he  ends  with  these  words : 
"Besides  those  things  that  are  without,  there  is  that  which 
presseth  upon  me  daily,  anxiety  for  all  the  churches.  Who 
is  weak,  and  I  am  not  weak?  who  is  caused  to  stumble,  and 
I  burn  not?"  (2  Cor  11.  28,  29).  The  same  spirit  appears 
in  another  passage:  "For  though  I  was  free  from  all  men, 
I  brought  myself  under  bondage  to  all,  that  I  might  gain 
the  more.  And  to  the  Jews  I  became  a  Jew,  that  I  might 
gain  the  Jews;  to  them  that  are  without  law,  as  without 
law,  .  .  .  that  I  might  gain  them  that  are  without  law. 
I  am  become  all  things  to  all  men,  that  I  may  by  all  means 
save  some"  (i  Cor  9.  19-22).  Nothing  reveals  this  spirit 
better,  or  shows  the  real  Paul  more  clearly,  than  the  words 
in  which  he  bares  his  heart  to  the  Thessalonians  (i  Thess 
2.  5-12). 
Tact  and  Next  to  the  spirit  of  love,  we  must  admire  Paul's  tact 

kindliness  ^j^^j  kindliness  in  his  relation  to  his  churches.  Paul  under- 
stood "the  gentle  art  of  praising."  He  knows  how  effective 
praise  is  in  the  training  of  men.  All  his  letters  begin  with 
words  of  generous  recognition.  "I  thank  my  God  upon  all 
my  remembrance  of  you,"  he  writes  the  Philippians,  "always 
in  every  supplication  of  mine  on  behalf  of  you  all  making 
my  supplication  with  joy,  for  your  fellowship  in  furtherance 
of  the  gospel  from  the  first  day  until  now"  (Phil  i.  3-5). 
Even  with  the  Corinthians,  despite  all  he  has  to  correct,  he 
finds  ground  for  such  appreciation :  "I  thank  God  always 
concerning  3^ou,  for  the  grace  of  God  which  was  given  you 
in  Christ  Jesus ;  that  in  everything  ye  were  enriched  in  him, 
in  all  utterance  and  all  knowledge  ;  so  that  ye  come  behind  in 
no  gift"  (i  Cor  i.  4-7).  The  same  tact  and  skill  is  shown 
in  the  way  in  which  he  handles  the  matter  of  the  collection 
for  the  poor  at  Jerusalem  (2  Cor  8  and  9).  He  holds  up 
the  Macedonian  churches  to  stir  up  emulation.  He  reminds 
the  Corinthians  that  they  had  really  been  the  leaders  in 
this  and  praises  their  progress  in  other  graces.    He  appeals 


PAUL  AS  PASTOR  247 

to  the  example  of  Jesus,  to  their  love  for  him,  to  the  praise 
he  has  given  them  before  others.  But  nowhere  does  he 
rebuke  them  for  their  slowness  after  their  first  start,  or 
issue  a  blunt  command. 

To  this  tact  and  kindliness  Paul  adds  courage  and  in-  courage 
sight.  He  never  draws  back  from  any  needed  rebuke,  *°**  "isight 
whether  the  quarrelsomeness  of  his  dear  Philippian  friends 
(Phil  4.  I,  2)  or  the  disorders  and  immorality  of  the  Corin- 
thians. And  yet  he  is  too  wise  to  indulge  in  mere  rebuke. 
Like  Jesus,  he  penetrates  to  the  spirit  that  is  back  of  the 
fault  and  then  sets  up  the  principle  of  the  higher  life.  He 
confronts  the  quarrelsome  Philippians  with  his  great  appeal: 
"Have  this  mind  in  you,  which  was  also  in  Christ  Jesus" 
(Phil  2.  5-1 1 ).  Before  the  immoral  Corinthians  he  holds 
up  the  great  spiritual  principle :  "Your  body  is  a  temple  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  which  is  in  you,  and  ye  are  not  your  own" 
(i  Cor  6.  19,  20). 

There  is  one  other  great  service  which  Paul  rendered  The  church 
besides  this  personal  oversight,  and  that  was  the  organiza-  "^^amzer 
tion  of  his  churches.  Christianity  was  more  than  a  new 
faith  implanted  in  the  hearts  of  so  many  men  and  women. 
It  was  a  new  fellowship,  a  society  which  bound  its  members 
together  with  the  closest  ties.  And  these  people  were  joined 
not  simply  locally  in  scattered  communities ;  they  were  one 
in  a  growing  brotherhood  that  stretched  throughout  the 
empire,  a  brotherhood  of  such  strength  that  it  stood  firm 
when  the  storms  of  later  years  swept  the  empire  itself  from 
its  foundations.  There  are  three  questions  to  be  asked 
concerning  this  work  of  Paul.  How  were  the  local  Chris- 
tian communities  organized  by  him?  How  were  these 
scattered  communities  related  to  each  other?  And  what 
was  the  relation  of  the  Pauline  churches  to  the  other  Chris- 
tian communities,  especially  the  churches  under  the  Jeru- 
salem apostles? 

What  strikes  us  first  in  reading  Paul's  letters  is  that  so  Little 
little  is  said  about  organization  or  officers.     No  doubt  this  organization 


248 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Many  gifts, 
one  Spirit 


Overseers 


is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  Paul  felt  that  the  present  age 
was  to  last  but  a  short  time.  The  more  important  reason, 
however,  lay  in  Paul's  thought  of  the  church.  The  church 
for  him  was  not  a  matter  of  officials  and  organization ;  it 
was  a  fellowship  in  the  Spirit.  It  was  the  Spirit  that  was 
the  life  of  the  church  and  that  gave  it  guidance. 

This  Spirit  belonged  to  all  Christians  as  such.  There  was 
no  higher  or  lower  among  them,  for  one  Spirit  filled  them 
all.  This  same  Spirit,  however,  showed  itself  in  different 
manner  with  different  people,  fitting  them  for  different 
forms  of  service.  "Now  there  are  diversities  of  gifts,  but 
the  same  Spirit.  And  there  are  diversities  of  ministrations, 
and  the  same  Lord.  ...  To  one  is  given  through  the  Spirit 
the  word  of  wisdom ;  and  to  another  the  word  of  knowledge, 
according  to  the  same  Spirit ;  to  another  faith,  in  the  same 
Spirit ;  and  to  another  gifts  of  healings,  in  the  one  Spirit ; 
and  to  another  workings  of  miracles ;  and  to  another 
prophecy ;  and  to  another  discernings  of  spirits ;  to  another 
divers  kinds  of  tongues ;  and  to  another  the  interpretations 
of  tongues.  God  hath  set  some  in  the  church,  first  apostles, 
secondly  prophets,  thirdly  teachers,  then  miracles,  then  gifts 
of  healings,  helps,  governments,  divers  kinds  of  tongues" 
(i  Cor  12.  4-10,  28). 

In  this  long  list  we  have  the  various  kinds  of  activities 
represented  in  the  Corinthian  church.  The  apostles  stand 
first,  men  specially  commissioned  to  preach  the  gospel 
throughout  the  whole  church.  The  prophets  are  the  inspired 
preachers.  The  teachers  are  those  who  have  the  task  of 
instruction,  probably  explaining  the  Old  Testament  in  its 
Christian  meaning  and  applying  Christian  truths  to  daily 
conduct.  The  speaking  with  tongues  has  already  been  con- 
sidered. In  the  midst  of  this  list  occurs  the  word  "govern- 
ments" (i  Cor  12.  28).  It  probably  refers  to  those  who 
directed  the  temporal  affairs  of  the  little  Christian  com- 
munity. Even  in  the  simplest  community,  some  one  was 
needed  to  provide  the  place  of  meeting,  to  arrange  for  the 


PAUL  AS   PASTOR  249 

care  of  visiting  apostles  or  prophets  or  other  brethren,  to 
collect  and  distribute  the  money  for  the  poor,  and  attend  to 
similar  duties.  Stephanas  was  such  a  man,  of  whom  Paul 
writes,  "I  beseech  you,  brethren  (ye  know  the  house  of 
Stephanas,  that  it  is  the  first  fruits  of  Achaia,  and  that  they 
have  set  themselves  to  minister  unto  the  saints),  that  ye 
also  be  in  subjection  unto  such,  and  to  every  one  that 
helpeth  in  the  work  and  laboreth"  (i  Cor  16.  15,  16).  In 
Cenchrese  it  was  a  woman,  Phoebe,  who  performed  this 
service  (Rom  16.  i,  2).  In  a  larger  community  there  would 
be  several  such.  These  are  meant  by  the  ''overseers"  men- 
tioned in  Phil  I.  I,  translated  "bishops"  in  our  version. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  in  Paul's  usage  of  the  terms  these 
are  the  same  as  the  presbyters,  or  elders.  This  work  would 
naturally  fall  to  people  of  means  and  liberal  spirit,  such  as 
those  in  whose  houses  the  little  groups  of  disciples  gathered, 
or  to  the  older  disciples. 

If  we  consider  all  these  passages,  certain  interesting  facts  Their  place 
stand  out.  (i)  These  officers  are  for  Paul  not  so  much  «°d  meaning 
people  of  authority  as  people  who  serve.  It  is  the  service, 
not  the  authorit}',  that  Paul  emphasizes  with  Stephanas. 
That  is,  Paul's  test  here  as  with  every  gift  is,  "To  each  one 
is  given  the  manifestation  of  the  Spirit  to  profit  withal." 
It  is  the  service  of  the  church,  and  not  authority  over  the 
church,  that  Paul  is  concerned  with.  He  is  expressing  here 
simply  the  principle  of  Jesus:  "If  any  man  would  be  first, 
he  shall  be  last  of  all,  and  servant  of  all"  (Mark  9.  35). 
(2)  These  offices,  like  all  others,  are  gifts  of  the  Spirit. 
God  helps  one  man  to  prophesy,  he  helps  another  to  serve 
the  church  in  these  practical  aft'airs.  (3)  These  men  are  not 
placed  above  others  in  the  church.  In  direct  contrast  with 
the  later  thought  of  the  church,  these  overseers,  or  bishops, 
seem  to  have  been  placed  pretty  well  down  in  the  list.  In 
Corinth,  at  least,  the  church  seems  to  have  thought  more 
of  the  gifts  of  prophecy  and  of  tongues.  Paul  finds  it 
necessary  here  and  elsewhere  to  exhort  the  church  to  appro- 


250 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Increasing 
importance 


Early 
democracy 


ciation  of  the  service  of  these  men  and  to  a  proper  respect 
for  them.  It  was  natural  that  the  people  should  think  more 
of  the  spiritual  gifts  than  of  these  everyday  affairs  with 
which  the  overseers,  or  bishops,  concerned  themselves. 

As  the  church  grew  the  work  of  these  men  increased  in 
importance.  The  supervision  of  the  poor  funds,  the  pro- 
vision for  place  of  meeting,  for  the  common  meals,  and 
other  church  matters  added  to  their  influence.  The  other 
gifts  were  matters  of  individual  endowment  and  would 
change ;  these  men  formed  a  permanent  body.  Other  duties 
would  naturally  be  added,  such  as  the  supervision  of  the 
worship  and  matters  of  church  discipline.  Meanwhile,  as 
the  church  at  Corinth  shows,  the  gifts  of  prophecy  and  of 
tongues  might  easily  lead  to  excesses  and  even  fraud.  After 
Paul's  day  conflict  arose  between  the  men  who  appealed  to 
their  inspiration  by  the  Spirit  and  the  regular  officials,  and 
the  church  decided  for  the  officials. 

Paul's  day  was  still  one  of  freedom  and  spontaneity.  The 
life  of  the  local  church  was  democratic.  The  picture  of  the 
worship  in  the  Corinthian  church  shows  that  any  one  might 
take  part  as  he  felt  moved  by  the  Spirit.  More  significant 
is  the  fact  that  when  matters  are  to  be  decided  Paul  calls 
upon  the  church  as  a  whole.  It  is  to  the  congregation  as  a 
whole  that  he  addresses  his  letters  and  arguments  and 
appeals.  Nowhere  does  he  ask  any  officer  or  body  of  offi- 
cials to  take  any  action  or  pass  any  decision.  Furthermore, 
Paul  himself  does  not  decide  for  the  church.  It  is  true,  he 
is  an  apostle  and  these  are  his  churches,  the  children  whom 
he  has  begotten  in  toil  and  pain.  Pie  argues  and  appeals, 
he  praises  and  censures,  he  sometimes  makes  demands ; 
but  he  never  comes  forward  simply  with  command  and  the 
assertion  of  authority.  They  are  a  church  of  God  and  the 
Spirit  of  God  is  in  them.  When  Paul  has  a  word  of  Jesus 
to  quote,  then  that  is  final  (i  Cor  7.  10).  He  distinguishes 
carefully  between  this  and  his  own  authority  ( i  Cor  7.  12. 
25,  40).    As  for  the  authority  of  any  central  church  council 


PAUL  AS  PASTOR 


251 


or  other  body,  that  is  nowhere  so  much  as  suggested. 
Neither  the  church  at  Jerusalem  nor  the  twelve  apostles  have 
any  right  of  rule  in  Paul's  churches. 

What,  then,  was  the  relation  between  the  scattered  com- 
munities? Were  they  simply  so  many  individual  congrega- 
tions? On  the  contrary,  no  man  of  his  generation  seems  to 
have  had  so  clear  an  idea  of  the  unity  of  the  church  or  laid 
such  stress  upon  it  as  Paul.  It  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Spirit 
again  which  gives  the  answer.  The  churches  are  one  in  a 
real  sense,  not  because  of  officers  placed  over  them  or  a 
central  authority  which  unites  them,  but  because  they  have 
one  spirit  which  is  their  life  and  which  unites  them  in  the 
one  body  of  Christ. 

This  spirit  of  unity  Paul  seeks  to  further  in  every  possible 
manner.  He  knows  no  Christian  life  that  is  not  a  life  in 
the  Christian  fellowship.  He  seeks  to  promote  that  fellow- 
ship in  every  possible  way,  and  first  of  all  within  the  single 
Christian  community.  His  letters  abound  in  exhortations 
to  kindliness  and  patience  and  mutual  helpfulness  and  serv- 
ice, and  no  man  has  ever  so  glorified  the  spirit  of  love  and 
fraternal  loyalty.  He  seeks  to  promote  the  same  spirit 
among  the  churches,  that  they  may  all  be  united  in  one 
fellowship.  His  collection  for  the  Jerusalem  church  is  the 
great  evidence  of  this  desire.  The  space  which  this  occupies 
in  his  letters  shows  how  much  pains  he  gave  himself  in 
this.  And  no  opposition  of  the  Judaizing  brethren  from 
Jerusalem  ever  made  him  swerve  from  this  self-assumed 
task. 

The  constant  travel  of  Christians  was  the  most  important 
practical  means  of  securing  this  unity  among  the  scattered 
brotherhoods.  First  among  these  were  the  twelve  and  the 
other  apostles.  Two  of  these  he  found  in  Ephesus  (Rom 
16.  7).  We  know  little  of  the  work  of  the  twelve,  but  it 
seems  that  others  besides  Peter  traveled  about  the  church 
(i  Cor  9.  5).  The  prophets  too  went  from  church  to  church. 
But  more  important  still  were  the  travels  of  disciples  of 


The  Spirit 
and  church 
unity 


Paul's 
interest 
in  unity 


Practical 
unity,  how 
secured, 
its  value 


252  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

the  rank  and  file.  Such  were  Priscilla  and  Aquila,  whose 
names  we  find  connected  in  turn  with  Pontus,  Rome.  Cor- 
inth, and  Ephesus.  One  of  their  moves  was  due  to  perse- 
cution suffered  as  Jews ;  the  others  were  presumably  for 
reasons  of  business.  Such  traveling  and  visiting  kept  alive 
the  sense  of  brotherhood  and  of  a  vital  unity.  The  Chris- 
tians knew  what  was  happening  to  their  brethren  all  through 
the  empire.  Paul  tells  the  Thessalonians  that  their  faith 
is  known  not  only  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  but  in  every 
place.  He  informs  the  Corinthians  that  the  Macedonians 
know  of  their  first  collections  for  Jerusalem.  To  the  Romans 
he  writes  that  their  "faith  is  proclaimed  throughout  the 
whole  world"  (Rom  i.  8).  By  such  mutual  acquaintance 
and  interest  the  bond  of  brotherhood  became  very  definite 
and  very  strong.  Nothing  added  more  to  the  power  and 
attractiveness  of  the  new  religion  than  this  spirit  of  fra- 
ternity, both  in  the  local  church  and  throughout  the  empire. 
The  new  disciple  found  himself  at  once  received  into  a 
community  that  was  more  of  a  family  than  a  mere  organiza- 
tion. On  the  first  day  of  the  week  they  met  for  worship  in 
which  each  might  have  a  part.  During  the  week  they 
sat  down  at  common  meals.  When  one  disciple  was  in 
need,  the  love,  the  sympathy,  and  the  material  help  of  the 
whole  brotherhood  were  behind  him.  And  he  soon  realized 
that  the  little  fellowship  of  his  own  city  was  part  of  a  greater 
fellowship  that  embraced  the  Roman  realm.  Rome  itself 
began  at  last  to  take  notice,  not  so  much  of  Christianity's 
creed,  as  of  the  power  of  this  great  fraternity. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR   READING   AND    STUDY 

Note  Paul's  qualities  as  a  pastor  as  revealed  in  i  Thess  2.  5-12. 

Select  two  good  illustrations  of  Paul's  praise  of  his  churches. 
In  what  letter  does  Paul  omit  this  praise  from  the  introduction? 

Read  2  Cor  8  and  g  and  make  a  list  of  the  different  motives  to 
which  Paul  here  appeals. 

Read  i  Cor  12.  4-10,  28;  Eph  4.  11,  12;  Phil  i.  i;  Acts  I4-  23. 

Make  a  list  of  the  gifts,  or  offices,  mentioned  in  these  passages. 


PAUL  AS  PASTOR  253 

Which  of  these  are  represented  in  the  accounts  of  the  Jerusalem 
church? 

What  significance,  if  any,  is  there  in  the  fact  that  no  two  of 
these  lists  agree?  Does  it  suggest  the  absence  of  fixed  forms  of 
church  life  and  organization? 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 


PAUL    THE    LETTER-WRITER 


Importance  of 
the  letters 


AUdue 
to  special 
occasions 


A  STUDY  of  the  New  Testament  shows  that  about  one 
fourth  of  its  contents  are  assigned  to  the  apostle  Paul.  The 
influence  of  these  writings  has  been  in  even  greater  pro- 
portion. The  writings  of  no  other  Christian  man  can  be 
set  beside  those  of  Paul  in  this  regard.  The  great  leaders 
of  Christian  thought,  like  Augustine  and  Calvin,  have  always 
looked  to  him.  In  the  great  religious  movements  within 
the  church,  like  those  led  by  Luther  and  Wesley,  it  is 
Paul's  message  that  has  been  revived.  There  is  not  a  city 
where  Paul  founded  Christianity  that  could  be  called  a  great 
Christian  center  to-day;  but  these  letters,  directed  to  these 
churches,  have  been  a  ferment  for  Christian  thought  and  a 
guide  for  Christian  life  through  all  these  years ;  nor  do  they 
show  signs  of  diminishing  power  to-day.  If  the  test  of 
inspiration  be  the  power  to  inspire  men,  then  these  writings 
must  be  placed  among  the  first  of  all  writings  wrought  by 
the  Spirit  of  God. 

Probably  no  one  dreamed  less  of  such  a  future  for  these 
writings  than  Paul  himself.  A  distant  posterity  was  farthest 
from  his  mind  when  he  wrote.  Certainly  he  had  no  thought 
that  his  letters  would  ever  be  included  in  a  new  collection 
of  sacred  writings  to  be  placed  side  by  side  with  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  of  his  people.  He  never  thought  of  his  words 
as  being  on  the  same  plane  with  the  Old  Testament  or  the 
words  of  Jesus.  Neither  did  Paul  ever  think  of  his  letters 
as  words  of  literature  or  treatises  on  theology.  Paul's  writ- 
ings all  had  a  special  occasion  for  their  composition  in  some 
practical  need.  They  were  simply  a  part  of  his  missionary 
work.     Paul  was  not  theologian  and  not  author ;  he  was 

254 


letters  lived 


PAUL  THE  LETTER-WRITER  255 

just  apostle  and  missionary.  These  letters  are  all  connected 
with  a  definite  situation.  Now  he  writes  to  thank  the 
Philippians  for  their  gifts,  or  to  send  his  love  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians  and  encourage  them  in  their  persecutions.  Now  it 
is  to  answer  questions  that  the  Corinthians  have  sent  him, 
or  to  call  the  Galatians  back  from  their  errors.  Usually,  he 
has  more  than  one  purpose.  But  always  there  is  a  definite 
end,  and  the  letters  move  on  toward  this  and  in  earnest  and 
practical  fashion. 

If  we  ask  why  these  letters  have  lived,  they  themselves  Why  the 
will  give  us  the  answer.  It  is  not  due  to  any  claim  that 
Paul  made  for  them  or  any  theory  of  inspiration  that  his 
churches  held  about  them.  It  is  due  to  what  the  letters  are 
in  themselves.  They  are  the  noblest  expression  of  that 
Spirit  of  God  which  Paul  and  his  disciples  believed  was 
working  in  their  midst.  It  is  true  that  Paul  is  treating 
matters  that  are  local  and  questions  that  were  often  tem- 
porary. We  are  not  troubled  to-day  about  meats  offered 
to  idols,  nor  are  we  divided  about  the  question  of  keeping 
the  Jewish  law.  But  these  passing  questions  were  all 
considered  by  Paul  in  the  light  of  great  Christian  principles. 
We  do  not  need  Paul's  discussion  as  to  whether  a  Christian 
may  eat  such  meats,  but  we  need  his  great  principle  still : 
Knowledge  puffeth  up,  but  love  buildeth  up.  The  Jewish 
law  is  behind  us,  but  we  have  not  yet  caught  up  with  Paul's 
great  truth,  that  life  is  a  spirit  lived  out  in  freedom  and  not 
a  matter  of  rule  and  routine.  And  as  in  matters  of  conduct, 
so  in  matters  of  faith :  the  varying  needs  of  each  one  of 
these  little  brotherhoods  is  only  another  occasion  for  Paul 
to  set  forth  in  new  form  the  eternal  truths  of  his  gospel. 
Paul  himself  was  not  unconscious  of  what  he  was  offering. 
He  sees  the  larger  company  behind  those  whom  he  is  im- 
mediately addressing.  He  directs  this  letter  not  to  one 
church,  but  to  a  whole  province  (2  Cor  i.  i).  He  arranges 
to  have  his  letters  passed  on  from  church  to  church,  or 
exchanged  among  them  (Col  4.  16). 


256 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


How 

written 


The  usual 
arrangement 


Paul's  letters  were  dictated  (Rom  16.  22;  Gal  6.  11 ;  i  Cor 
16.  21).  This  may  have  been  due  to  trouble  with  his  eyes,  or 
to  the  fact  that  his  hands  roughened  with  work  were  not 
adapted  to  the  pen,  or  simply  that  he  let  another  write  for 
him  while  he  plied  his  tent-maker's  needle.  The  habit,  in 
any  case,  explains  some  qualities  in  Paul's  style.  They  have 
a  certain  lack  of  literary  finish,  but  there  are  a  directness 
and  vigor  and  vividness  that  more  than  compensate  for  this. 
We  hear  Paul  speaking  as  we  read.  His  arguments  are 
often  dramatic.  He  sets  his  opponents  before  him  and 
questions  them.  He  breaks  out  in  impassioned  utterance. 
Sometimes  he  begins  sentences  without  completing  them, 
as  though  he  had  been  interrupted  in  his  dictation.  To  be 
fully  appreciated,  these  letters  should  be  read  aloud,  or 
recited. 

While  Paul  follows  no  rule,  most  of  his  letters  fall  natur- 
ally into  three  parts,  aside  from  the  salutation,  (i)  The 
introductions  are  used  by  Paul  to  establish  relations  with 
his  readers.  They  are  models  of  Christian  courtesy  and  tact 
and  skill.  Here  is  the  letter  to  the  Romans.  Paul  is  paving 
the  way  for  a  later  visit.  He  begins  with  an  appreciation 
of  their  faith,  which  "is  proclaimed  throughout  the  whole 
world."  He  tells  them  how  he  has  long  since  wished  to  see 
them,  and  has  been  prevented.  He  wants  to  preach  his 
gospel  to  them  also,  to  "impart  some  spiritual  gift."  And 
then,  lest  he  might  seem  to  assume  too  much,  he  hastens  to 
make  the  service  mutual :  he  is  to  comfort  them  and  they 
are  to  comfort  him  (Rom  i.  8-15).  In  these  modest,  friendly, 
appreciative  words  Paul  strikes  just  the  right  note  for  the 
letter  to  a  church  upon  which  he  had  no  claim  as  founder. 
(2)  The  doctrinal  part  comes  second.  It  is  never  abstract 
or  general,  but  always  a  discussion  of  Christian  truth  in 
relation  to  the  particular  needs  of  a  given  church.  (3)  The 
practical  exhortations  come  last.  They  form  the  finest  body 
of  ethical  teachings  and  practical  maxims  to  be  found  in 
Christian  literature.     Thev  are   Paul's  answer  to  the  im- 


PAUL  THE  LETTER-WRITER  257 

portant  questions  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  new  faith  for 
the  relations  of  daily  hfe. 

Though  the  letters  almost  all  have  these  three  elements  Differences  in 
of  the  personal,  the  doctrinal,  and  the  practical,  yet  Paul 
follows  no  fixed  rule  in  writing.  Each  letter,  indeed,  stands 
by  itself  and  reveals  a  new  aspect  of  this  great  man.  Some 
are  written  to  churches  which  he  does  not  personally  know 
and  so  are  less  personal  and  more  objective,  as  well  as  more 
doctrinal:  such  are  Romans,  Colossians,  and  Ephesians, 
Some  are  mainly  practical  and  ethical,  like  First  Corinthians. 
Two  are  letters  of  controversy  and  self-defense — Galatians 
and  what  we  have  called  Third  Corinthians,  that  is,  2  Cor 
10  to  13.  These  are  full  of  passionate  appeal,  of  argument 
and  denunciation.  And,  finally,  there  are  the  more  intimate 
personal  letters:  First  Thessalonians,  written  to  the  little 
company  of  Christians  which  he  had  been  compelled  to 
leave  so  suddenly  but  a  few  months  before ;  Philippians, 
the  letter  of  friendship  to  his  most  loyal  church  ;  and  Phile- 
mon, the  only  letter  preserved  which  Paul  wrote  to  a 
private  individual.  The  last  two  may  be  taken  for  closer 
study  as  examples  of  Paul's  art  as  a  letter-writer. 

Paul's  letter  to  the  Philippians  is  the  great  friendship  The  friend- 
letter  of  the  New  Testament.  With  no  church  did  Paul  ^^'p^^"" 
have  so  close  a  relation.  Here  he  had  accepted  private 
entertainment  from  Lydia  contrary  to  his  rule.  And  they 
formed  an  exception  also  in  the  gifts  which  they  sent  him 
again  and  again.  He  had  revisited  them  twice  and  no  doubt 
had  written  them  as  well,  but  these  earlier  letters  are  lost. 
At  the  time  of  this  letter  Paul  had  reached  Rome  as  a 
prisoner.  The  Philippian  friends  had  learned  of  his  situa- 
tion and  had  sent  one  of  their  number,  Epaphroditus,  to 
bring  him  money  and  to  help  care  for  him.  Epaphroditus 
had  fallen  seriously  ill  at  Rome.  He  was  recovered  now, 
but  was  homesick,  and  Paul  prepares  to  send  him  back. 
He  plans  also  to  send  Timothy  to  them  a  little  later,  as  soon 
as  he  knows  how  his  trial  is  coming  out.     Meanwhile  he 


258 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Outline  of 
Philippians 
Personal 


Exhortation 


A  message 


Warnings 


writes  this  letter,  Paul's  love  letter  some  German  scholars 
have  called  it.  He  tells  them  of  his  affection,  of  his  need, 
of  his  appreciation.  And  yet  he  is  still  the  faithful  mis- 
sionary and  pastor,  who  tells  them  frankly  of  their  needs 
at  the  same  time.    We  may  outline  the  epistle  as  follows : 

1.  Introduction  and  personal  items:  In  my  every 
prayer  I  thank  God  for  you,  remembering  your  help.  May 
God  make  your  love  abound  more  and  more  and  add  to  it 
wisdom.  My  imprisonment  has  been  really  an  opportunity. 
It  has  given  me  the  chance  to  preach  to  all  the  soldiers  of 
the  pretorian  guard  and  it  has  encouraged  others.  I  do 
not  know  what  the  end  of  my  trial  will  be,  whether  life  or 
death.  I  do  not  even  know  which  I  wish  for  myself.  I 
should  like  to  go  and  be  with  Christ,  but  I  am  ready  to  stay 
here  and  serve  (i.  1-26). 

2.  An  exhortation :  Live  worthily  of  the  gospel  of  Christ, 
undisturbed  by  persecutions.  And  complete  my  joy  by 
giving  up  all  divisions  and  jealousies  and  pride.  Instead 
of  such  selfish  quarrelings,  let  each  show  in  his  life  the 
spirit  that  Jesus  showed.  He  left  his  high  estate  and  became 
a  servant  of  men,  though  that  service  led  him  even  to  death. 
That  is  why  God  has  exalted  him  and  why  every  knee  is  to 
bow  before  him.  Work  out  your  salvation  with  fear  and 
trembUng.  Live  the  pure  life  despite  the  sin  that  is  about 
you  (i.  27  to  2.  18). 

3.  A  message:  I  expect  to  send  Timothy  to  you  in  a 
little  while.  I  am  hoping  to  come  to  you  myself  before  long. 
It  seemed  necessary  to  send  back  Epaphroditus  now.  Honor 
him  for  his  work  (2.  19-30). 

4.  Some  warnings :  Beware  of  those  Judaizers  who  teach 
that  you  must  be  circumcised  and  keep  the  law.  If  the  law 
were  worth  anything,  I  should  have  been  saved.  No  one 
can  boast  purer  Hebrew  blood  or  stricter  obedience  than  I. 
But  when  I  found  Christ,  these  things  were  mere  refuse  to 
me.  Now  I  have  only  one  purpose— to  gain  the  life  that 
is  in  him.    Like  the  runner  I  have  only  one  goal ;  I  press  on 


PAUL  THE  LETTER-WRITER 


259 


Final 
exhortations 


Letter  to 
Philemon 


to  lay  hold  of  that  for  which  Jesus  once  laid  hold  of  me. 
Beware  also  of  those  who  say  we  are  delivered  from  all 
law,  whose  only  law  is  self-indulgence.  We  are  citizens  of 
heaven;  we  must  not  follow  things  of  earth  (3.  1-21). 

5.  Further  exhortations:  Stand  fast.  Let  Euodia  and 
Syntyche  agree.  Live  in  joy  and  in  trust,  and  God's  peace 
shall  keep  you.  Whatever  is  good,  note  and  follow;  and 
what  I  have  stood  for,  that  do  (4.  1-9). 

6.  Thanksgiving:  I  rejoice  in  your  gift  to  me;  you  have  a  message" 
not  had  the  chance  for  some  time  to  send  to  me.    For  myself 

I  do  not  complain;  I  can  do  all  things  in  God's  strength. 
You  are  the  only  church  that  has  ever  thus  served  me.  And 
all  your  needs  shall  be  supplied  from  God's  riches  as  they 
are  in  Christ  (4.  10-23). 

The  letter  to  Philemon  stands  alone  in  the  New  Testament. 
It  shows  the  value  placed  upon  Paul's  words  from  the  first 
that  such  a  letter  should  have  been  preserved,  for  it  is  purely 
personal  and  has  no  discussion  of  doctrine  or  declarations 
as  to  moral  principles.  It  is  probably  from  the  same  period 
as  Philippians.  Paul  is  a  prisoner  at  Rome.  As  that  letter 
shows  us,  Paul  was  free  to  preach  not  only  to  the  soldiers 
of  his  guard  but  to  any  who  might  visit  his  rooms.  Men 
called  the  Rome  of  that  day  the  sewer  into  which  all  the 
empire  emptied  its  filth.  Then,  as  now,  the  big  city  was  a 
better  hiding  place  for  the  runaway  than  was  the  desert. 
Among  Paul's  hearers  one  day  was  a  runaway  slave,  such 
a  man  as  might  loiter  idly  on  the  edge  of  a  Salvation  Army 
street  meeting  in  our  time.  Some  word  of  Paul's  gospel 
reached  this  man.  He  became  a  disciple.  Very  naturally, 
he  told  his  story  and  confessed  his  fault.  Then  it  appeared 
that  this  slave  belonged  to  an  old  friend  of  Paul,  one,  indeed, 
who  had  been  converted  by  the  apostle,  a  certain  Philemon 
who  lived  in  Colossge,  and  who  was  probably  won  by  Paul 
while  the  latter  was  at  Ephesus.  Philemon  was  well  to  do. 
He  not  only  had  servants  but  was  able  to  entertain.  Paul 
writes  asking  him  to  have  lodgings  ready  for  him,  for  he 


A  runaway 
slave 


26o 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


A  unique 
letter 


The  appeal 
for  a  slave 


was  evidently  expecting  to  be  released  and  to  travel  to 
Alacedonia  and  Asia.  Philemon  was  not  only  a  Christian 
but  had  been  an  active  helper  of  Paul.  Archippus,  to  whom 
Paul  twice  refers,  may  have  been  his  son  (Col  4.  17). 
Apphia  was  probably  his  wife.  The  letter  suggests  a  Chris- 
tian home  of  the  best  type. 

Under  the  circumstances  Paul  writes  this  brief  epistle. 
This  charming  letter,  playful  yet  serious,  appealing  as  a 
friend  when  he  might  have  demanded  as  an  apostle,  honor- 
ing the  friendship  by  his  confident  request,  pathetically 
referring  to  himself  as  "being  such  a  one  as  Paul  the  aged, 
and  now  a  prisoner  also  of  Christ  Jesus,"  the  next  moment 
punning  upon  the  name  of  the  slave — this  letter  is  not  out- 
ranked by  any  letter  of  friendship  in  literature,  and  at  the 
same  time  thro\\s  still  further  light  upon  this  many-sided 
man. 

'T  thank  my  God  always  for  you,"  Paul  writes,  "remem- 
bering your  faith  and  your  service  to  the  church.  I  might 
come  with  a  command ;  instead  I  am  bringing  a  request 
for  friendship's  sake  on  behalf  of  this  convert  of  mine,  your 
slave  Useful  (that  is,  Onesimus).  So  far,  indeed,  he  has 
been  Useless  to  you ;  now,  however,  he  is  useful  to  both 
you  and  me.  I  should  have  liked  to  keep  him,  but  I  wanted 
your  goodness  to  be  free  and  not  of  compulsion.  And  this 
may  be  why  he  left  you  as  a  slave — that  he  might  return 
as  a  brother.  If  you  count  me  a  partner,  receive  him  as  you 
would  myself.  If  you  have  lost  anything  by  him,  charge 
that  to  my  account.  I  know  you  will  do  even  more  than  I 
ask.  Prepare  a  lodging  for  me,  for  I  hope  to  come  to  you 
soon." 

DIRECTIONS    FOR   READING   AND    STUDY 

Read  and  compare  the  introductions  to  First  Corinthians,  Colos- 
sians,  and  First  Thessalonians.  What  is  common  to  them?  Why- 
should  that  of  First  Thessalonians  be  longer? 

Read  carefully  Philippians  and  note  its  intimate  and  personal 
character.     Make  a  list  of  the  passages  in  which  Paul  sets  forth 


PAUL  THE  LETTER-WRITER  261 

his  personal  faith  and  purpose.  Write  an  account  of  Paul's  rela- 
tions with  the  Philippians  on  the  basis  of  Acts  16.  11-40;  2  Cor 
II.  8,  9;  and  Philippians.  Select  eight  or  ten  passages  from  Philip- 
pians which  reveal  his  personal  regard  for  this  church. 

Read  Philemon.  Does  Paul  expect  Philemon  to  set  Onesimus 
free?  What  bearing  has  the  Christian  religion  had  upon  the 
problem   of   slavery? 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII 
PAUL   THE   PRISONER 


Last  visit  to 
Macedonia 
and  Corinth 


The  close  The  scvcn  great  years  of  Paul's  work  were  drawing  to  a 

close.  Long  before  this  Paul  had  fixed  his  eye  upon  Rome 
and  the  West.  It  was  about  this  time  that  he  wrote  to  Rome 
and  told  them  of  his  plans :  He  had  fully  preached  the  gos- 
pel from  Jerusalem  and  round  about  even  to  Illyricum. 
Now  he  was  planning  for  Rome  and  Spain.  To  Rome, 
indeed,  Paul  was  to  come,  but  only  as  a  prisoner, 

Luke  tells  us  that  Paul  left  Ephesus  after  the  tumult 
which  Demetrius  had  stirred  up.  His  missionary  work  in 
these  regions  was  finished,  but  there  were  two  reasons  why 
he  could  not  go  at  once  to  Rome.  In  the  first  place,  he 
wished  to  revisit  the  churches  in  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
It  was  about  this  time  that  affairs  at  Corinth  had  reached 
a  crisis.  Timothy's  visit  had  been  followed  by  Paul's.  Paul 
had  written  again  (2  Cor  10  to  13).  He  had  sent  Titus 
and  was  anxiously  awaiting  word  from  him.  Now  he  pre- 
pares to  go  to  Corinth  himself  by  way  of  Macedonia. 
Troas  is  his  first  stop,  but  he  has  not  heard  from  Titus 
and  so  goes  on  to  Macedonia  to  meet  him.  There  he  hears 
good  news  at  last  and  writes  his  last  letter  to  the  Corin- 
thians (2  Cor  I  to  9).  The  letter  did  not  reach  Corinth 
very  much  before  Paul. 

The  collection  Paul's  sccond  reason  for  delay  was  the  collection  that 
he  was  making  for  the  Jerusalem  church.  This  was  one 
reason  for  his  visit  to  the  Macedonian  churches.  With  all 
his  insistence  upon  his  independent  authority  as  an  apostle 
and  the  truth  of  his  gospel,  Paul  never  once  surrendered 
his  ideal  of  the  church  as  one  body  of  Christ  and  one  fel- 
lowship. Under  his  direction  the  churches  had  been  gath- 
ering these  offerings  for  some  time.     Now  the  money  was 

262 


PAUL  THE  PRISONER  263 

all  to  be  brought  together  and  taken  to  Jerusalem.  The 
big  offering  was  to  be  Paul's  proof  of  loyalty,  and  Paul 
looked  forward  to  it  as  the  means  that  should  cement  the 
Gentile  churches  and  the  Jewish  churches  together.  And 
yet  Paul  was  not  wholly  sure  of  the  issue.  He  knew  the 
element  in  Judsea  that  had  sought  almost  everywhere  to 
block  his  work,  that  had  attacked  him  by  every  possible 
means  both  in  his  gospel  and  in  his  person.  These  men 
would  oppose  him  when  he  returned ;  how  would  the  church 
as  a  whole  stand?  He  knew  too  that  he  would  be  in  dan- 
ger from  the  Jews.  How  deeply  concerned  he  was  is  seen 
from  his  letter  to  the  Romans  written  at  this  time:  "I  be- 
seech you,  brethren,  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  by  the 
love  of  the  Spirit,  that  ye  strive  together  with  me  in  your 
prayers  to  God  for  me ;  that  I  may  be  delivered  from  them 
that  are  disobedient  in  Judsea,  and  that  my  ministration 
which  I  have  for  Jerusalem  may  be  acceptable  to  the  saints" 
(Rom  15.  30,  31). 

Paul  had  intended  to  sail  directly  from  Corinth  to  Syria. 
A  plot  laid  against  him  by  the  Jews  compelled  him  to  leave 
earlier  than  he  intended.  He  had  apparently  fixed  the 
date  when  he  wished  to  arrive  in  Jerusalem,  and  now  he 
uses  the  extra  time  at  his  disposal  and  returns  through 
Macedonia.  At  Troas  he  is  joined  by  those  who  are  to 
accompany  him  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  group  that  starts 
for  Jerusalem  numbers  at  least  nine.  Luke  was  probably 
with  Paul,  and  in  addition  there  were  seven  representatives 
of  the  churches  whose  offerings  were  being  taken.  From 
Macedonia  there  came  Sopater  of  the  Berean  church,  and 
Aristarchus  and  Secundus  of  Thessalonica.  Gains  of  Derbe 
and  Timothy  of  Lystra  represented  Galatia,  while  from 
Ephesus  there  came  Tychicus  and  Trophimus  (Acts  20.  4). 
These  men  were  to  be  the  living  testimony  to  Paul's  work 
which  he  could  show  to  the  Judaean  Christians.  But  Paul's 
chief  desire  for  their  presence  was  that  he  might  i)revent 
all  possible  criticism  as  if  he  were  profiting  by  these  col- 


264 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Warnings 
of  danger 


Meetings 
by  the  way 


lections.  These  men  were  themselves  to  bear  the  funds. 
They  were  witnesses  to  Paul's  disinterestedness. 

As  the  journey  to  Jerusalem  proceeded,  Paul  received 
repeated  warnings  of  the  danger  to  which  he  was  exposing 
himself.  Everywhere  that  Paul  had  labored  his  attitude 
against  the  law  was  known  by  the  Jews.  It  was  not  a  case 
of  Judaizing  Christians,  but  of  the  hostility  of  the  Jews 
themselves.  Paul  had  asserted  that  Jesus  was  the  end 
of  the  law  to  those  that  believed.  His  mission  had  every- 
where been  in  competition  with  the  Jews.  They  had  seen 
him  lead  away  their  best  adherents  and  sympathizers  among 
the  Gentiles,  the  people  who  had  given  the  synagogue  stand- 
ing and  support.  They  were  his  bitter  enemies.  Restrained 
elsewhere  by  Roman  authority,  would  they  not  here  in 
Judaea  wreak  their  vengeance  upon  him?  Some  of  these 
men  would  be  at  Jerusalem,  for  the  city  always  held  large 
numbers  of  Jews  of  the  dispersion  returning  for  a  longer 
or  shorter  stay.  In  any  case,  his  work  had  long  since  been 
reported.  Characteristic  was  the  warning  which  Paul  re- 
ceived when  the  party  landed  at  Csesarea.  Here  a  Christian 
prophet  from  Judsea  took  Paul's  girdle  and  bound  the  hands 
and  feet  of  the  apostle.  It  was  his  symbolic  way  of  declar- 
ing the  captivity  that  awaited  Paul. 

The  story  of  this  journey  as  given  by  Luke  shows  also 
that  Paul's  deep  affection  for  his  churches  was  returned 
by  them.  We  read  of  the  meeting  at  Troas,  from  which 
place  the  company  started,  and  how  Paul  spoke  till  mid- 
night and  then  till  morning.  It  was  their  last  time  to- 
gether and  they  found  it  hard  to  part.  At  Miletus  he  meets 
the  Ephesian  elders.  "And  they  all  wept  sore,  and  fell 
on  Paul's  neck  and  kissed  him."  At  Caesarea  they  pleaded 
with  Paul  not  to  go  on  to  Jerusalem.  His  answer  shows 
the  mutual  affection :  "What  do  ye,  weeping  and  breaking 
my  heart?"  But  all  this  could  not  move  Paul  from  his 
purpose :  "I  am  ready  not  to  be  bound  only,  but  also  to 
die  at  Jerusalem  for  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus." 


PAUL  THE  PREACHER 


265 


From    Csesarea    Paul   went   up   to   Jerusalem,   his   little   with  the 


company  being  increased  by  some  members  of  the  Cesa- 
rean church  and  by  one  Mnason,  a  native  of  Cyprus  and 
an  early  convert,  who  was  to  be  Paul's  host  in  the  city. 
To  the  assembled  church  Paul  reported  his  work.  He 
had  not  seen  them  for  three  years.  He  told  them  of  the 
establishment  of  the  work  in  Ephesus,  of  its  spread  through- 
out Asia,  and  of  its  continued  development  in  Macedonia 
and  Achaia.  Then  his  associates  handed  over  their  gifts. 
It  must  have  been  a  large  offering.  It  had  been  two  years 
in  the  gathering.  Much  of  it  had  come  out  of  the  poverty 
of  its  donors.  The  apostle,  who  would  not  take  a  penny 
for  himself,  had  given  constant  care  and  effort  to  this. 
Would  the  Jerusalem  church  accept  it  in  like  spirit  ?  Would 
the  gift  with  his  story  of  the  work  make  them  feel  that 
his  churches  were  really  one  with  them?  And  would  they 
overlook  their  scruples  on  the  one  hand  and  overrule  the 
little  group  that  had  been  making  him  so  much  trouble  by 
their  attack? 

Paul  was  doomed  to  a  measure  of  disappointment.  They 
received  him  kindly  and  they  praised  God  for  the  progress 
of  the  gospel,  but  they  could  not  forget  their  concern  for 
the  law.  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  seems  now  to  have 
become  the  recognized  head  of  the  church.  No  one  else 
is  mentioned  beside  him.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that  the 
two  leaders  who  now  faced  each  other,  James  and  Paul, 
were  neither  of  them  of  the  twelve.  James  stood  for  rever- 
ence for  the  law.  The  church  had  become  more  conserva- 
tive. The  Jewish  leaders  now  saw  no  cause  for  persecution. 
Many  thousands  of  the  Jews  had  joined  the  new  faith, 
which  did  not  mean  to  them  any  separation  from  the  old. 
And  so  the  leaders  made  a  request  of  Paul.  What  troubled 
them  was  not  the  reception  of  the  Gentiles,  nor  even  that 
Paul  had  not  required  the  law  of  these.  "The  report  is 
around,"  they  said,  "that  you  tell  the  Jews  that  are  con- 
verted that  they  do  not  need  to  keep  the  law.     We  have 


Jerusalem 
church 


21^ 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  tumult 
in  the  temple 


Addresses  to 
people  and 
Sanhedrin 


something  to  propose  that  will  show  that  you  keep  the 
law  as  a  faithful  Jew.  Here  are  four  poor  men  who  have 
just  completed  their  term  of  the  Nazirite  vow.  Do  you 
now  join  them,  shaving  your  head  and  paying  for  their 
offerings."  Paul  has  been  criticised  for  entering  upon  this 
plan.  He  had  certainly  not  been  walking  "orderly,  keep- 
ing the  law."  And  yet  this  accommodation  to  the  prejudices 
or  weakness  of  others  was  in  line  with  his  practice  all 
these  years;  he  had  been  a  Jew  to  the  Jews,  and  to  those 
without  the  law  as  without  law. 

It  was  this  decision,  however,  that  brought  on  the  crisis. 
Following  the  old  law  in  this  case  (Num  6.  13-20),  Paul  had 
gone  into  the  temple.  Certain  Jews,  who  had  known  him 
in  Ephesus,  had  seen  him  a  few  days  before  in  company 
with  Trophimus  of  Ephesus,  a  Gentile  and  one  of  those  who 
had  come  with  the  offering.  Evidently,  they  had  recog- 
nized Trophimus  also.  Now,  seeing  Paul  in  the  temple, 
they  concluded  at  once  that  he  had  taken  Trophimus  also 
into  the  sacred  place.  It  was  an  offense  punishable  by 
death,  and  they  would  have  inflicted  the  penalty  at  the 
time  had  not  the  Roman  guards  rescued  him.  It  was  not 
simply  hatred  of  Paul  that  was  involved  here.  Most  of 
the  mob  probably  knew  no  more  than  that  some  one  was 
charged  with  desecrating  the  holy  place.  But  that  was 
enough.  The  sanctity  of  the  temple  was  more  to  them 
than  life,  and  the  experience  of  the  last  years  with  the 
Romans  had  kept  their  fear  of  desecration  alive  and  their 
passions  aflame.  The  captain  himself  could  make  nothing 
of  the  tumult.  Only  one  man  was  cool ;  that  was  Paul. 
It  was  not  the  first  time  he  had  faced  an  angry  mob,  or 
even  death.  He  was  not  thinking  of  safety  now.  He  asked 
of  the  Roman  captain  permission  to  speak,  and  before  the 
angry  mob  he  undertook  a  defense  of  his  life  and  his 
faith. 

It  speaks  eloquently  of  the  courage  and  commanding 
power  of  the  man  that  he  could  win  a  hearing  at  such  a 


PAUL  THE  PRISONER  267 

moment,  but  one  need  not  wonder  that  his  words  did  not 
help  his  case  with  the  excited  crowd,  or  that  they  did  not 
listen  long-.  They  heard  him  while  he  told  of  his  conver- 
sion. It  was  not  the  reference  to  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  that 
brought  the  speech  to  an  abrupt  end,  but  the  mention  of 
the  Gentiles.  At  that  all  the  excitement  broke  loose  again. 
The  captain,  seeing  that  no  light  was  to  be  gotten  here, 
carried  off  his  prisoner  and  prepared  to  scourge  him.  It 
was  the  brutal  method  used  in  some  cases  to  secure  a  con- 
fession. With  a  Roman  citizen,  however,  it  was  never 
permitted,  and  Paul's  declaration  of  his  citizenship  stopped 
the  proceeding.  The  captain  made  a  final  attempt  to  get 
light  upon  the  matter  the  next  day  by  calling  a  meeting 
of  the  Sanhedrin  and  setting  Paul  before  it.  This  too  ended 
in  a  tumult.  They  were  in  no  mood  to  give  such  a  man 
a  hearing,  and  Paul  soon  saw  this.  Luke  reports  that  he 
divided  the  enemy  by  his  declaration  that  the  trouble  arose 
because  he  believed  in  the  resurrection,  thus  setting  the 
Pharisees  of  the  council  against  the  Sadducees ;  the  ground 
for  such  a  declaration  would  be  his  preaching  of  the  resur- 
rection of  Christ, 

In  this  way  Paul's  imprisonment  began.  It  was  per-  in  prison 
haps  the  most  trying  period  of  his  life.  Dangers  Paul 
did  not  fear,  nor  even  the  threat  of  death.  He  had  long 
since  given  himself  up  to  his  Master  for  life  or  death. 
It  was  from  prison  that  he  wrote,  "For  me  to  live  is 
Christ,  and  to  die  is  gain."  But  this  was  neither  life  nor 
death.  Beyond  the  sea  were  his  churches  still  needing 
his  guidance.  To  the  west  were  fields  that  he  had  planned 
to  reach.  But  he  must  remain  for  five  years  a  prisoner, 
held  by  the  bitterness  of  his  foes  on  the  one  hand,  on  the 
other  by  the  weakness,  selfishness,  or  indifference  of  his 
judges. 

A  plot  against  Paul's  life,  which  his  nephew  brought  to   Before  Feiis 
the  captain,  caused  his  immediate  transference  out  of  Jew- 
ish territory  to  the  safer  confines  of  Csesai'ea.  the  official 


268 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Before  Festus 


Speeches 
before  Felix 
and  Agrippa 


residence  of  the  procurator.  Thus  Paul  retraced  his  jour- 
ney of  a  few  days  before.  The  procurator  at  this  time 
was  Antonius  Felix,  a  man  who  had  once  been  a  slave. 
Cruel  and  incompetent,  the  historian  Tacitus  declares  that 
he  kept  the  temper  of  a  slave  while  wielding  kingly  power. 
Here  Paul's  enemies  from  Jerusalem,  led  by  the  high  priest 
Ananias,  brought  their  charges  against  him,  having  engaged 
as  advocate  one  TertuUus,  apparently  a  Roman.  They 
charged  him  with  stirring  up  insurrection,  with  profaning 
the  temple,  and  with  being  a  ringleader  of  the  new  sect  of 
the  Nazarenes.  Paul  admits  the  last,  though  denying  any 
wrong  in  it.  The  two  first  he  challenges  them  to  prove. 
Felix  simply  postponed  the  case.  He  held  Paul,  however, 
as  a  prisoner  with  a  double  motive,  Luke  says — desiring  to 
placate  the  Jews,  with  whom  he  had  had  trouble  enough, 
and  hoping  for  money  from  Paul.  Apparently,  he  was  not 
unkindly  disposed  toward  Paul.  The  latter  had  consid- 
erable liberty,  his  friends  were  permitted  access  to  him, 
and  Felix  himself  called  Paul  to  him  more  than  once. 

After  two  years  Felix  was  succeeded  by  Festus.  The 
first  visit  which  the  latter  made  in  his  province  was  to 
Jerusalem.  This  was  his  chief  city  and  the  chief  problem 
of  his  administration.  To  the  demand  of  the  Jews  that 
Paul  should  be  sent  to  Jerusalem  for  trial,  Festus  replied 
that  he  would  try  him  in  Csesarea.  So  there  was  another 
trial  at  Csesarea  which  established  as  little  against  Paul  as 
the  first.  Instead,  however,  of  setting  Paul  free,  Festus 
now  proposed  to  agree  to  the  request  of  the  Jews  and  take 
the  case  to  Jerusalem.  And  so  at  length  Paul  made  use  of 
his  privilege  as  a  Roman  citizen  and  demanded  that  he 
be  tried  at  the  imperial  court  at  Rome. 

Luke  tells  us  of  two  other  speeches  that  Paul  made  dur- 
ing this  time.  The  first  was  before  Felix  and  his  wife 
Drusilla,  the  other  was  after  the  coming  of  Festus  on  the 
occasion  of  a  visit  from  Agrippa  and  his  sister  Bernice. 
Drusilla,  Agrippa,  and  Bernice  were  children  of  Agrippa  I 


PAUL  THE  PRISONER  269 

and  great-grandchildren  of  Herod  the  Great,  the  last  two 
especially  of  notorious  immorality.  It  was  significant  of 
Paul  that  he  should  be  willing  to  speak  to  them,  that  he 
should  reason  of  "righteousness,  and  self-control,  and  judg- 
ment to  come,"  and  that  his  defense  before  Agrippa  should 
become  a  sermon  on  repentance  and  faith  in  Christ.  Paul 
could  forget  his  own  safety  and  everything  else  in  the  one 
passion  of  his  life — the  preaching  of  his  gospel. 

The  journey  to  Rome  was  destined  to  prove  a  long  one.  The  voyage 
We  have  a  vivid  and  detailed  account  of  it,  which  gives  *°  ^°™® 
us  a  better  picture  of  sea  travel  in  that  day  than  any 
other  writing  that  has  come  down  to  us.  We  owe  this 
to  the  fact  that  Luke  was  Paul's  companion.  Aristarchus 
of  Thessalonica  was  also  with  him.  There  were  a  number 
of  other  prisoners,  which  presupposes  a  good  company  of 
soldiers  by  way  of  guard.  The  centurion  in  charge  was 
named  Julius.  It  was  not  possible  to  get  a  ship  direct  to 
Italy,  and  so  a  coasting  vessel  was  taken  which  would 
take  them  to  a  port  from  which  they  could  transship  for  the 
longer  voyage.  This  latter  was  done  at  Alyra,  a  port  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  where  they  found  one  of 
the  many  vessels  that  plied  between  Alexandria  and  Italy 
and  with  the  usual  cargo  of  wheat.  It  must  have  been  a 
large  vessel  for  that  day,  as  it  had  in  addition  to  its  cargo 
two  hundred  and  seventy-six  people  on  board. 

From  the  first  the  voyagers  suffered  through  untoward  storm  and 
winds.  They  beat  along  the  coast  until  they  reached  Cnidus,  ^'*'p*''**='' 
from  which  place  they  made  for  the  island  of  Crete,  reach- 
ing at  last  the  harbor  Fair  Havens.  The  season  was  ad- 
vanced and  Paul  urged  that  they  winter  here.  But  the 
liarbor  hardly  deserved  its  good  name,  and  it  was  decided 
to  make  for  Phoenix,  further  along  the  coast.  They  had 
not  gotten  far  from  Fair  Havens  when  a  storm  from  the 
northeast  swept  down  upon  them.  The  task  of  the  seaman, 
without  compass  or  steam,  was  hard  enough  in  that  day 
in  any  case.     Now  they  were  swept  on  day  after  day  with- 


270  NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

out  sun  or  stars  even  to  let  them  know  their  course.  The 
ship's  company  seems  to  have  reached  a  stage  of  despair 
where  they  would  not  even  eat.  In  the  night  Paul  had 
one  of  those  visions  which  marked  more  than  one  turning 
point  in  his  life.  He  told  them  of  the  vision  the  next  day, 
how  the  angel  of  the  God  "whose  I  am,  whom  also  I 
serve,"  had  told  him  to  be  without  fear,  that  he  was  to 
reach  Rome  and  that  the  company  should  also  be  saved. 
The  shipwreck  itself  is  described  with  vivid  detail  by  Luke. 
In  these  moments  of  peril  the  commanding  figure  was 
not  captain  of  vessel  or  of  soldiers,  but  the  prisoner,  Paul. 
Pie  prevented  the  sailors  from  leaving  the  boat,  and  it  was 
consideration  for  him  that  caused  the  centurion  to  check 
the  plan  of  the  soldiers,  who  wanted  to  kill  the  prisoners 
lest  they  escape. 
Malta  It  was  the  island  of  Malta,  south  of  Sicily,  where  they 

to  Rome  landed.     The  winter  season  was  spent  here,  three  months 

in  all,  after  which  they  shipped  for  Rome  in  another  Alex- 
andrian vessel  which  had  wintered  in  the  island.  At  the 
port  of  Puteoli  they  left  the  boat,  the  remaining  journey 
of  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  being  made  on  foot. 
They  found  disciples  at  Puteoli  and  the  kindly  centurion 
permitted  a  stay  of  a  week.  Meanwhile  word  was  sent  on 
to  Rome.  Some  of  the  Roman  brethren  came  out  forty 
miles  on  the  road,  as  far  as  the  Market  of  Appius,  to  meet 
Paul,  and  still  others  were  waiting  him  at  The  Three  Tav- 
erns, a  little  farther  on. 
Prisoner  For  two  years  Paul  was  kept  a  prisoner  in  Rome  awaiting 

at  Rome  j^j^  ^^j^j^     They   were  not   idle  years.        We  know   of  at 

least  four  letters  dispatched  during  this  time — those  to  the 
Philippians,  the  Colossians,  the  Ephesians,  and  Philemon. 
A  large  measure  of  freedom  was  allowed  him.  A  soldier, 
a  member  of  the  pretorian  guard,  was  with  him  constantly, 
but  Paul  lived  in  his  own  rented  quarters  and  could  re- 
ceive visitors  as  he  wished.  Of  these  there  must  have 
been  a  great  number,     Luke  tells  of  the  conference  that 


PAUL  THE  PRISONER  271 

Paul  had  with  the  leaders  of  the  Roman  Jews.  The  Chris- 
tians would  naturally  come  to  him,  and,  in  addition,  Paul 
used  his  opportunity  to  preach  the  gospel  to  guard  and 
visitor  and  whomever  he  might  reach. 

The  church  at  Rome  is  one  of  the  signs  of  the  rapid  The  church 
spread  of  Christianity.  We  have  no  knowledge  at  all  a'^°™- 
as  to  how  it  was  founded.  Its  membership  was  largely 
Gentile.  It  was  from  this  church  that  Priscilla  and  Aquila 
had  come,  and  Paul  had  probably  met  other  members  be- 
fore this.  His  letter  to  this  church  had  been  written  from 
Corinth  some  three  years  before.  There  must  have  been 
a  considerable  Christian  community  even  then.  Paul's  own 
labors  added  to  that  number.  The  constant  change  of  his 
guard  enabled  him  to  give  his  message  to  the  Pretorian 
troopers  (Phil  i.  13).  Onesimus  must  have  been  a  type 
of  others  from  the  lower  classes  that  he  won.  The  mes- 
sage spread  even  to  the  servants  of  the  imperial  household 
(Phil  4.  22),  and  Paul's  courage  emboldened  other  disciples 
to  a  more  active  ministry  (Phil  i.  14).  Nero's  persecution 
a  little  later  shows  that  the  church  had  become  strong 
enough    to    attract    public    attention. 

The  close  of  Paul's  life  is  hidden  from  us.  Of  one  thing  The  close 
we  are  certain,  though  it  is  not  told  us  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament itself:  Paul  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome.  This 
we  learn  from  the  letter  written  by  Clement  of  Rome,  a 
message  of  the  Roman  church  to  that  at  Corinth  dating 
from  the  last  years  of  the  first  century.  But  what  the 
events  were  connected  with  his  death  we  do  not  know. 
There  are  two  theories  which  scholars  hold.  Some  con- 
sider that  Paul  was  acquitted  at  his  first  trial,  that  he  car- 
ried out  his  plan  of  a  visit  to  Spain  and  to  his  old  churches 
in  the  East,  and  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  after  a  sec- 
ond imprisonment  and  trial.  Others  hold  that  Paul  was 
condemned  and  suffered  death  at  the  close  of  this  first  im- 
prisonment. 

Connected   with  this  question   is   the  problem   of   what 


272  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

are  called  the  pastoral  epistles — First  and  Second  Timothy 
and  Titus.  Many  scholars  hold  that  these  letters  do  not 
come  from  Paul's  hand  in  the  form  in  which  we  now  have 
them.  Their  argument  is  that  the  conditions  reflected  here 
indicate  a  later  period  in  the  life  of  the  church,  and  that 
the  language  and  the  form  of  teaching  do  not  correspond 
with  Paul's  other  writings.  Many  of  these  scholars,  how- 
ever, hold  that  we  have  here  portions  of  Pauline  letters  to 
which  other  matter  was  later  added. 

In  any  case,  these  letters  do  not  describe  for  us  the  ac- 
tual close  of  Paul's  life  or  determine  the  time.  That  re- 
mains hidden  from  us.  We  do  know,  however,  that  which 
concerns  us  most.  That  is  the  character  and  life  and 
achievement  of  this  man.  He  has  drawn  for  us  his  own 
picture  in  those  letters  in  which  he  pours  out  his  soul. 
Luke  has  portrayed  him  for  us  in  such  scenes  as  those  of 
his  voyage  to  Rome:  the  kindliness,  the  helpfulness,  the 
faith,  the  courage,  the  mastery  of  himself  and  of  others, 
the  natural  leadership  that  made  him  inevitably  the  first 
in  any  company  whether  of  ship  and  soldiery  or  of  his  own 
disciples.  And  most  eloquent  of  all,  we  have  the  witness 
of  what  he  wrought,  a  Christianity  made  conscious  of  its 
independence  and  its  power,  of  its  world-saving  message 
and  its  world-embracing  fellowship,  and  established  on  firm 
foundations  throughout  the  empire. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Read  Acts  20  to  28. 

Make  a  list  of  Paul's  addresses  as  reported  in  these  chapters, 
giving  for  each  the  place,  the  occasion,  and  the  persons  present. 

Trace  upon  the  map  Paul's  journey  from  Troas  to  Jerusalem  and 
from  Cassarea  to  Rome.  Make  a  list  of  the  places  stopped  at  upon 
each  journey. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 


PAUL  THE  MAN 


Paul  is  the  best-known  man  of  his  age  and  one  of  the 
most  interesting  men  of  all  ages.  He  had  the  greatness 
of  a  man  with  a  single  purpose.  His  life  was  given  to 
only  one  end — he  was  a  missionary  of  the  gospel  of  Christ. 
But  to  that  one  task  he  brought  a  marvelous  diversity  of 
gifts,  and  it  is  this  many-sided  character  of  the  man  that 
makes  his  personality  so  interesting.  Preacher,  teacher, 
theologian,  missionary,  church  founder  and  organizer,  poet, 
logician,  mystic,  moralist :  he  w^as  all  these  and  more. 

I.  We  may  study  him  first  as  man  of  mind,  the  great 
thinker  and  teacher  of  Christianity.  He  had  the  keenness 
and  mental  alertness  which  belonged  to  the  Greek,  joined 
to  the  spiritual  vision  of  a  Hebrew  prophet.  His  first 
great  deed  was  to  interpret  Christianity.  It  is  one  of  the 
strange  facts  of  history,  that  this  man  who  never  knew 
Jesus  personally  saw  the  meaning  of  Christianity  as  none 
of  the  twelve  did.  He  awoke  Christianity  to  self-conscious- 
ness. He  gave  her  a  message  and  a  voice.  He  interpreted 
Christianity  to  the  mind  of  the  Roman  world.  He  showed 
them  Jesus  not  simply  as  Jewish  IMessiah  but  as  the  Saviour 
of  the  world.  Christianity  was  first  of  all  a  great  experi- 
ence to  him,  but  he  had  also  the  power  to  interpret  that 
experience. 

But  this  man  of  mind  was  not  a  man  of  mere  logic. 
With  all  his  keen  intellect,  he  was  not  concerned  wdth 
theory  or  speculation.  His  concern  is  with  truth  as  it 
bears  upon  life.  His  great  conceptions  of  religion  all  root 
in  his  own  experience.  And  Paul  was  a  psychologist ;  he 
knew  how  to  read  the  meaning  of  what  his  own  soul  had 

273 


The  many- 
sided  Paul 


The  man 
of  mind 


The  inter- 
preter of 
Christianity 


Life,  and  not 
mere  logic 


274 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Will  and 
character 


The  leader 


gone  through  and  to  draw  its  lesson  for  others.  To  this 
was  joined  his  experience  as  missionary,  preaching  to 
others  the  truth  that  had  made  his  own  Hfe.  Sometimes, 
it  is  true,  we  hear  the  Jewish  rabbi  speaking  in  his  argu- 
ments, but  the  great  truths  for  which  Paul  stands  had  this 
vital  source.  It  is  this  that  has  made  Paul  so  great  an 
influence  in  the  Christian  thinking  of  the  centuries. 

II.  We  may  consider  Paul,  in  the  second  place,  as  a 
man  of  will.  It  is  his  strength  of  will  that  first  of  all 
impresses  us.  We  feel  that  the  personality  of  Paul  is  one 
of  the  great  forces  of  history.  This  man  had  a  clear  pur- 
pose and  an  indomitable  spirit  back  of  it.  The  will  of 
the  man  is  seen  in  the  greatness  of  that  purpose.  It  is 
no  less  than  the  establishment  of  the  new  faith  throughout 
the  empire,  and  that  by  his  own  effort.  No  hardship,  no 
toil,  no  danger  holds  him  back.  Beaten  by  Jews  and  by 
Romans,  stoned,  shipwrecked,  imprisoned,  fighting  against 
illness,  against  the  doubt  of  fellow  Christians  and  the  re- 
lentless hostility  of  the  Jews,  he  moves  on  unswerving  and 
with  undaunted  will.  He  had  no  organization  back  of  him. 
To  disarm  criticism  he  supported  himself  by  labor.  And 
for  this  great  work  he  had  but  a  few  years  at  command. 
Yet  he  carried  out  his  plan  in  the  main.  His  great  cam- 
paign might  well  be  placed  beside  that  of  Alexander  or 
Napoleon,  while  in  the  permanency  of  his  work  he  surpassed 
them  both. 

The  study  of  Paul's  life  shows  his  strength  as  a  leader 
at  every  stage.  He  is  everywhere  the  master  of  men  and  of 
circumstances.  In  rude  Galatia  or  cultured  Athens,  be- 
fore the  Philippian  praetors  or  the  angry  mob  of  his  coun- 
trymen, facing  royal  judges  or  in  the  presence  of  imminent 
death,  he  is  always  the  same,  unmoved  by  danger,  unawed 
by  authority.  His  independence  is  the  more  remarkable 
when  we  think  of  his  position.  His  only  credentials  as  he 
began  his  mission  were  his  story  of  a  vision.  That  was 
enough,  however,  for  him.     That  vision  and  call  lie  back 


PAUL  THE  MAN  275 

of  his  independence  and  his  courage.  He  was  an  apostle 
"not  from  men,  neither  through  man,  but  through  Jesus 
Christ  and  God  the  Father."  For  that  reason  there  was  a 
deep  humility  joined  to  his  independence.  It  is  not  his 
own  strength  but  God's  grace.  "When  I  am  weak,  then 
am  I  strong,"  he  said.  "I  can  do  all  things  in  him  that 
strengtheneth  me."  "We  have  this  treasure  in  earthen  ves- 
sels," he  declares,  "that  the  exceeding  greatness  of  the 
power  may  be  of  God." 

On  its  moral  side,  then,  this  strength  of  will  is  simply  Devotion 
an  absolute  devotion  to  high  purpose.  His  life  has  but 
one  meaning — the  preaching  of  the  gospel.  "One  thing 
I  do,"  he  says.  He  has  no  other  interest  in  life.  We  hear 
nothing  of  his  family,  except  a  casual  reference  to  his 
nephew.  He  seems  to  have  cut  the  ties  of  home  as  of 
nation.  He  has  no  friends  except  his  fellow  workers.  "I 
count  all  things  to  be  loss  for  the  excellency  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  Christ  Jesus  my  Lord.  I  press  on,  if  so  be  that  I 
may  lay  hold  on  that  for  which  also  I  was  laid  hold  on  by 
Christ  Jesus.     For  me  to  live  is  Christ." 

HL  And  yet  this  man  of  keen  intellect  and  inflexible  The  man 
will  was  also  a  man  of  heart.  Indeed,  it  is  here  that  we 
find  the  real  Paul.  In  depth  of  feeling  and  range  of  re- 
ligious experience  and  emotion  it  would  be  hard  to  find 
another  to  place  beside  him.  Not  that  Paul  is  a  flawless 
saint.  His  passionate  feeling  seems  sometimes  to  have 
led  him  to  a  severity  of  judgment  and  a  denunciation  of 
his  opponents  which  do  not  accord  with  his  own  teachings; 
and  he  may  have  erred  on  the  other  side  in  indulgence 
toward  those  he  loved.  If  there  be  such  defects,  they  are 
only  incident  to  his  strength.  And  in  this  emotional  side 
of  his  nature  Paul's  strength  largely  lay.  He  was  no  man 
of  cold  calculation  and  shrewd  prudence.  He  loved  with 
the  tenderness  of  a  woman  and  the  devotion  of  a  mother, 
and  he  could  fight  with  all  the  passion  of  his  nature.  It 
made  him  the  most  loved  and  the  most  hated  of  men.     He 


of  heart 


276 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  place 
of  his 
experience 


The  range 
of  experience 


bound  his  friends  to  him  for  Hfe,  and  he  gained  enemies 

who  pursued  him  to  his  death. 

Paul's  religious  experience  is  the  first  and  deepest  ele- 
ment in  this  side  of  his  nature.  Out  of  this  experience 
came  his  message  and  his  restless  activity.  Paul  will  never 
be  understood  so  long  as  men  think  of  him  as  primarily 
a  great  theologian  or  church  organizer.  He  was  first  of 
all  a  Christian.  Doctrine  and  institution  are  always  sim- 
ply forms  in  which  life  expresses  itself.  The  life  itself  is 
greater  than  all  its  forms,  Paul  did  an  incalculable  service 
to  the  church  in  expounding  the  meaning  of  the  new  faith, 
but  we  must  always  distinguish  between  these  doctrines  of 
Paul  and  the  living  faith  which  they  seek  to  set  forth.  Plis 
letters  show  us  again  and  again  how  all  his  thought  and 
service  flow  out  of  this  inner  spring.  "For  the  love  of 
Christ  constrained!  us ;  because  we  thus  judge,  that  one 
died  for  all,  therefore  all  died ;  and  he  died  for  all,  that 
they  that  live  should  no  longer  live  unto  themselves,  but 
unto  him  who  for  their  sakes  died  and  rose  again.  Where- 
fore if  any  man  is  in  Christ,  he  is  a  new  creature :  the  old 
things  are  passed  away;  behold,  they  are  become  new. 
We  are  ambassadors  therefore  on  behalf  of  Christ,  as  though 
God  were  entreating  by  us"  (2  Cor  5.  14,  15,  17,  20). 

With  this  depth  of  Paul's  religious  life  there  went  an 
equally  wonderful  range.  What  he  preached  to  men  he 
himself  had  passed  through.  His  speech  may  have  lacked 
polish,  but  we  do  not  wonder  that  it  was  with  power.  He 
himself  was  the  sinner,  like  those  to  whom  he  spoke.  Out 
of  his  own  heart  he  spoke  of  the  burden  of  guilt  and  the 
bondage  of  evil :  "The  good  which  I  would  I  do  not : 
but  the  evil  which  I  would  not,  that  I  practice.  Wretched 
man  that  I  am !  who  shall  deliver  me  out  of  the  body  of 
this  death?"  (Rom  7.  19,  24).  The  deliverance  which  he 
proclaimed  he  himself  rejoiced  in :  "I  thank  God  through 
Jesus  Christ  our  Lord.  There  is  therefore  now  no  con- 
demnation to  them  that  are  in  Christ  Jesus.     For  the  law 


PAUL  THE  MAN  2^^ 

of  the  Spirit  of  life  in  Christ  Jesus  made  me  free  from  the 
law  of  sin  and  death"  (Rom  7.  25;  8.  i,  2).  When  Paul 
speaks  of  the  new  life  that  is  given  to  the  believer,  of 
the  new  spirit  that  lives  in  man's  heart  and  makes  a  new 
creature,  this  too  is  out  of  his  own  experience:  "It  is  no 
longer  I  that  live,  but  Christ  liveth  in  me :  and  that  life 
which  I  now  live  in  the  flesh  I  live  in  faith,  the  faith  which 
is  in  the  Son  of  God,  who  loved  me,  and  gave  himself  up 
for  me"  (Gal  2.  20). 

Besides  the  religious  life,  Paul's  emotional  nature  may  Patriot 
be  studied  in  his  relations  with  men.  Whichever  way  we 
turn,  we  note  his  depth  and  power  of  feeling.  He  loved 
his  nation.  This  man  who  made  Christianity  universal, 
who  made  it  his  life  task  to  carry  the  gospel  to  the  Gen- 
tiles, who  was  held  as  a  traitor  to  his  race  for  so  doing, 
was,  in  fact,  the  most  ardent  of  patriots.  He  declares  that 
devotion  in  the  most  solemn  words :  "I  say  the  truth  in 
Christ,  I  lie  not,  my  conscience  bearing  witness  with  me 
in  the  Holy  Spirit,  that  I  have  great  sorrow  and  unceas- 
ing pain  in  my  heart.  For  I  could  wish  that  I  myself  were 
anathema  from  Christ  for  my  brethren's  sake,  my  kinsmen 
according  to  the  flesh."  And  with  all  his  work  for  the 
Gentiles,  Israel  yet  remained  for  him  a  nation  by  her- 
self: "Whose  is  the  adoption,  and  the  glory,  and  the  cov- 
enants, and  the  giving  of  the  law,  and  the  services  of  God, 
and  the  promises,  whose  are  the  fathers,  and  of  whom  is 
Christ  as  concerning  the  flesh"  (Rom  9.  1-5). 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  Paul  is  a  man  of  contrasts.  His  Contrasts 
depth  of  feeling  could  show  itself  in  fierce  indignation  and 
bitter  denunciation,  overwhelming  his  antagonists.  "Be- 
ware of  the  dogs,  beware  of  the  evil  workers,  beware  of 
the  concision."  "Such  men  are  false  apostles,  deceitful 
workers,  fashioning  themselves  into  apostles  of  Christ.  And 
no  marvel ;  for  even  Satan  fashioneth  himself  into  an  angel 
of  light."  "If  any  man  preacheth  unto  you  any  gospel  other 
than  that  which  ye  received,  let  him  be  anathema"   (Phil 


27%  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

2,.  2;  2  Cor  II.  13,  14;  Gal  1.9).  Yet  side  by  side  with 
this  he  shows  the  greatest  tenderness  and  patience  and  per- 
sonal humility.  In  the  very  midst  of  the  rebuke  of  his 
Galatians  he  calls  out  to  them,  "My  little  children,  of 
whom  I  am  again  in  travail  until  Christ  be  formed  in  you" 
(Gal  4.  19).  In  the  same  section  in  which  he  writes  so 
sternly  to  the  Corinthians,  he  declares :  *T  seek  not  yours, 
but  you :  for  the  children  ought  not  to  lay  up  for  the  parents, 
but  the  parents  for  the  children.  And  I  will  most  gladly 
spend  and  be  spent  for  your  souls"  (2  Cor  12.  14,  15).  Nor 
could  anything  suggest  a  more  beautiful  relation  than  the 
passage  addressed  to  the  Thessalonians  where  he  speaks  of 
his  relation  to  them  as  being  like  that  of  a  father  with  his 
sons,  a  nurse  with  her  own  children  (i  Thess  2.  7-12). 
Equally  attractive  is  the  picture  of  his  unselfish  devo- 
tion, that  weighs  him  down  at  the  thought  of  their  sorrow, 
and  makes  him  forget  his  own  troubles  in  the  joy  over 
their  welfare :  "Ye  are  our  glory  and  our  joy.  Now  we 
live,  if  ye  stand  fast  in  the  Lord.  For  what  thanksgiving 
can  we  render  again  unto  God  for  you,  for  all  the  joy 
wherewith  we  joy  for  your  sakes  before  our  God?"  (i  Thess 
2.  20;  3.  8,9). 
The  friend  Of  Paul's  tact  and  thoughtfulness  and  courtesy,  men- 

tion has  already  been  made.  We  have  yet  to  speak  of  him 
as  a  friend.  The  traditional  view  pictures  Paul  as  a  stern 
and  lonely  man,  pursuing  his  solitary  task  as  he  traverses 
land  and  sea.  Nothing  could  be  farther  from  the  truth. 
He  could  stand  alone  when  needed,  but  that  was  the 
measure  of  his  courage  and  devotion,  not  the  sign  of  his 
desire.  One  is  surprised  in  counting  up  the  names  of  his 
associates  and  friends  that  appear  in  his  letters.  They  are 
here  by  the  score.  They  appear  first  of  all  as  the  com- 
panions of  his  journeys  and  assistants  in  the  supervision 
of  his  churches.  Barnabas  is  the  first  of  these  whom  we 
meet.  Titus,  Timothy,  Silas,  and  Luke  are  others.  Paul 
looked  for  young  men  especially  to  help  him  in  this  work. 


PAUL  THE  MAN 


279 


They  were  not  subordinate  officials  to  the  great  apostle. 
They  were  his  friends,  his  sons,  and  he  pours  the  wealth 
of  his  affection  upon  them.  How  considerate  he  was  of 
them  is  shown,  for  example,  by  his  thoughtful  treatment 
of  Epaphroditus  (Phil  2.  25-30),  and  by  the  letter  with  which 
he  sent  Onesimus  back  to  Philemon.  And  the  letters  show 
how  this  strong  man  craved  the  sympathy  and  companion- 
ship of  these  coworkers.  In  addition  to  these  were  the 
associates  whom  Paul  found  in  every  place  where  he  re- 
mained any  length  of  time  for  work.  Of  these  too  there 
is  a  long  list :  Lydia  of  Philippi,  whose  guest  Paul  was ; 
Priscilla  and  Aquila,  of  tried  devotion ;  Stephanas,  Paul's 
first  convert  in  Corinth ;  Philemon,  convert  and  friend  and 
prospective  host ;  Rufus  of  Ephesus,  whose  mother  was  a 
mother  to  Paul;  and  with  them  many  others. 

It  is  not  hard  to  understand  how  Paul  drew  such  peo- 
ple to  himself.  It  was  because  the  love  which  was  central 
in  his  teaching  was  also  central  in  his  life.  No  one  quality 
of  the  Christian  life  was  so  emphasized  by  Paul  in  his 
writings.  For  him  it  was  the  supreme  element  in  the  Chris- 
tian character.  At  the  same  time  it  was  the  very  life  of 
the  Christian  fellowship.  It  was  not  organization  and 
officers  that  made  the  church  with  Paul,  but  the  indwelling 
spirit  of  Christ  which  was  love.  So  love  is  "the  bond  of 
perfectness"  for  the  individual  as  for  the  church.  "Put  on 
therefore,  as  God's  elect,  holy  and  beloved,  a  heart  of  com- 
passion, kindness,  lowliness,  meekness,  long-suffering;  for- 
bearing one  other,  and  forgiving  each  other,  if  any  have 
a  complaint  against  any ;  even  as  the  Lord  forgave  you,  so 
also  do  ye ;  and  above  all  these  things  put  on  love,  which 
is  the  bond  of  perfectness"  (Col  3.  12-14).  Such  fine  ex- 
hortations come  again  and  again,  finding  their  fitting  climax 
in  the  great  chapter  on  love  (i  Cor  13).  And  all  this 
teaching  is  but  the  expression  of  the  apostle's  own  spirit. 

Such  was  Paul  the  man.  the  most  human  figure,  next   a  human 
to  Jesus,  that  the  New  Testament  or  the  whole  Bible  brings  ^^"** 


28o  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

to  us.  It  is  this  intensely  human  character  that  has  made 
him  so  attractive  to  those  who  have  really  come  to  know 
him.  In  his  words  echo  the  deepest  needs  of  the  human 
heart,  its  cries  and  its  despair.  He  shows  us  our  aspira- 
tions too,  man  aiming  at  the  highest.  He  makes  us  feel  that 
we  too  may  die  to  sin  and  live  to  God  and  so  run  as 
to  attain.  And  yet  there  is  no  cold  flawlessness  about  him. 
This  man  of  deep  passions  and  broad  sympathies  and  human 
weakness  and  need  lived  upon  our  own  earth.  "Not  that  I 
have  already  attained,  or  am  already  made  perfect:  but  I 
press  on." 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Find  in  Romans  or  Galatians  a  chapter  which  illustrates  Paul's 
power  of  thought  or  argument. 

Select  three  scenes  from  Acts  which  illustrate  Paul's  self-pos- 
session or  strength  of  will. 

Name  two  letters  which  show  Paul  as  a  friend,  and  mark  sev- 
eral  appropriate   passages    in   each. 

Make  a  list  of  friends  and  associates  of  Paul  as  given  in  Romans, 
First  Corinthians,  Philippians,  and  Colossians.  Note  that  these 
names  occur  regularly  in  the  closing  chapter. 

From  the  book  of  Acts  find  the  names  of  one  or  more  com- 
panions of  Paul  for  each  of  his  missionary  journeys,  his  last  trip 
to  Jerusalem,  and  his  voyage  to  Rome. 


PART  V 
THE  LATER  CHURCH 


281 


CHAPTER  XL 
THE  FAITH  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH 

The  years  between  60  and  70  mark  a  turning  point  in  a  turning 
the  life  of  the  first-century  church.  The  three  greatest  ^°"'' 
leaders  were  taken  away,  Paul,  Peter,  and  James.  Paul 
suffered  martyrdom  in  Rome  between  64  and  68.  Peter 
met  the  same  fate,  according  to  ancient  tradition,  at  about 
the  same  time.  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  had  been  put 
to  death  by  the  Jews  just  before  this,  despite  his  faithful 
observance  of  the  law.  The  Jewish  war  began  in  66,  and 
in  70  the  city  was  taken  and  the  temple  destroyed ;  thus  the 
link  was  broken  which  had  joined  the  Gentile  churches  to 
the  mother  church  at  Jerusalem. 

When  we  move  past  this  year  70  into  the  second  genera-  Scanty 
tion  of  the  Christian   Church,  we  find  no  books  to  guide   ^°^J';^^ 

'  °  and  lesser 

US  like  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  and  the  letters  of  Paul,  importance 
We  have  a  good  many  New  Testament  writings  from  this 
period,  but  they  do  not  give  us  history.  We  do  not  know 
the  leaders  who  took  the  place  of  Paul  and  Peter  and  James. 
The  author  of  the  letter  to  the  Hebrews  must  have  been  a 
man  of  learning  and  ability,  but  not  even  his  name  is  pre- 
served. The  many  workers  mentioned  by  Paul  all  pass 
from  our  sight.  We  hear  no  more  of  the  gifted  and  elo- 
quent Apollos.  On  this  account  the  treatment  of  this  period 
in  a  New  Testament  history  may  be  brief.  There  is  a 
second  reason  for  brevity.  Deeply  interesting  though  the 
story  would  be  if  we  could  read  it,  it  could  not  compare 
in  importance  with  that  already  considered.  The  vital 
history  of  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  is  forever  linked 
to  two  names.  The  first  is  its  Founder,  whose  message  and 
spirit  and  life  and  death  were  the  creative  fact  that  brought 
forth  all  that  followed.     The  second  is  the  great  apostle, 

283 


284 


NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Three 
subjects 


Jewish 
Christianity 


James: 
Christianity 
as  a  new  law 


who  saw  the  meaning  of  that  life,  who  proclaimed  the  good 
news  throughout  the  world,  who  set  forth  for  all  time  the 
great  truths  of  the  faith,  and  who  established  the  fellowship 
which  we  call  the  church. 

While  we  have  little  in  the  way  of  historical  events,  there 
are  other  matters  of  interest  to  consider  in  this  closing 
period  of  New  Testament  history.  These  will  be  taken  up 
under  three  heads :  the  faith  of  the  later  church,  the  life  of 
the  later  church,  and  its  writings. 

In  taking  up  the  faith  of  this  second  period,  we  turn 
first  to  Jewish  Christianity.  The  great  controversy  within 
the  church  of  the  first  generation  was  that  concerning  the 
law:  Was  the  Christian  bound  to  keep  the  Jewish  law? 
In  the  second  generation  this  question  entirely  disappears. 
One  reason  for  this  was  the  great  and  steady  advance  of 
Gentile  Christianity.  The  other  was  the  lessening  impor- 
tance of  Jewish  Christianity.  The  Jerusalem  Christians 
left  the  city  before  its  capture  and  so  escaped  destruction ; 
by  so  doing  they  gained,  however,  the  bitter  enmity  of 
their  fellow  Jews  and  had  to  suffer  a  great  deal  of  per- 
secution. 

The  epistle  of  James  gives  us  a  good  picture  of  the  faith 
of  these  Jewish  Christians.  It  was  formerly  held  by  many 
scholars  that  this  letter  was  an  attack  upon  Paul  and  his 
doctrine  that  man  was  saved  by  faith :  "Ye  see  that  by  works 
a  man  is  justified,  and  not  only  by  faith"  (James  2.  24). 
But  there  is  no  thought  of  opposition  to  Paul  here.  The 
writer  has  not  really  grasped  Paul's  great  doctrine.  To  him 
religion  is  essentially  a  law  according  to  which  men  are  to 
live.  True,  it  is  a  higher  law ;  he  calls  it  "the  perfect  law, 
the  law  of  liberty."  But  Paul's  great  words  of  grace  and 
the  Spirit  are  wanting  here.  Religion  is  something  to  be 
done.  Within  these  limits  it  is  full  of  fine  maxims  and 
practical  truth,  with  many  echoes  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  and  other  gospel  passages ;  but  it  is  not  the  good 
news  that  conquered  the  world.     In  later  years  this  idea 


FAITH  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  285 

of  Christianity  as  a  new  law  gained  an  increasing  place  in 
the  whole  church.  At  this  time  it  seems  especially  charac- 
teristic of  Jewish  Christianity. 

Turning  to   the   Gentile  churches,   the   first   question   is,   Gentile 
Did    Paul's    influence    last?     Did   the   great    doctrines    for   Christianity 

.  .         Paul's 

which  he  stood  remain  as  the  church's  conception  of  Chris-  influence 
tianity?  In  large  measure  yes.  (i)  Christianity  remained 
the  universal  religion  for  which  Paul  fought,  not  a  mere 
variety  of  the  Jewish  faith.  (2)  Paul  established  once  for 
all  the  conception  of  Christ  as  being  on  the  one  hand  truly 
man,  born  of  woman,  and  on  the  other  the  eternal  Son 
of  God  and  the  Saviour  of  men.  (3)  Paul's  doctrine  of 
the  Spirit  as  ethical  remained.  He  saved  Christianity  from 
the  danger  of  fanaticism  by  insisting  that  the  Spirit  was 
the  Spirit  of  Christ,  that  it  meant  love  and  righteousness 
and  not  emotional  ecstasy  and  physical  excitement.  (4) 
The  Gentile  church  remained  as  Paul  had  founded  it ; 
Christianity  stood,  not  simply  for  individual  faith  and  ex- 
perience, but  for  an  ordered  and  organized  fellowship,  em- 
bracing all  believers  in  its  unity,  and  joined  in  a  life  of 
mutual  love  and  service. 

And  yet  the  church  did  not  keep  the  level  of  Paul's  Paul's  central 
highest  thought.  That  was  Paul's  answer  to  the  question,  ^^^'^^^^^ 
How  shall  a  man  be  saved  ?  Paul  said :  ( i )  A  man  is  saved 
by  God's  grace.  God  is  the  Father.  He  is  not  a  master 
whose  help  men  must  first  earn.  He  is  not  an  unwilling 
power,  whom  men  must  compel  by  sacrifice.  He  is  the  God 
of  mercy,  loving  the  world,  giving  his  Son.  forgiving  the 
sins  of  men.  "God  was  in  Christ,  reconciling  the  world 
unto  himself."  (2)  A  man  is  saved  through  faith;  we 
might  say  trust  instead.  God's  part  is  graciously  to  give; 
man's  part  is  with  love  and  trust  to  receive.  Religion  is 
not  a  proud  and  self-satisfied  doing.  It  is  a  loving,  self- 
surrendering  trust  of  the  soul.  (3)  All  this  means  a  new 
spirit  in  a  man.  It  is  the  man  made  over,  the  "new^  crea- 
tion," Paul  says ;  but  not  made  over  from  without  by  effort 


286  NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

or  knowledge.  The  new  spirit  which  makes  the  man  is 
God's  Spirit  in  him.  You  may  also  call  it  the  spirit  of 
Christ.  That  is  what  it  is :  the  love  and  purity  and  obedience 
and  kindness  which  were  the  spirit  of  Jesus  upon  earth, 
(4)  And  this  spirit  which  is  God's  gift,  is  our  task  at  the 
same  time.  The  Christian  must  live  it  out  day  by  day: 
"If  we  live  by  the  Spirit,  by  the  Spirit  let  us  also  walk." 
It  means  obedience,  but  not  to  an  outer  rule.  The  law  is 
within  us,  and  the  life  is  one  of  freedom. 
The  In  three  respects  the  church  moved  down  to  a  lower  level : 

lower  level  ^j-j  Faith  instead  of  being  a  personal  trust  came  to  be  a 
belief  in  the  doctrines  of  the  church.  Faith  as  a  personal 
deed  gives  place  to  "the  faith,"  which  is  a  sum  of  doctrines. 
First  Timothy  shows  the  beginnings  of  this.  (2)  There 
appear,  as  has  been  noted  in  James,  the  beginners  of  a  new 
legalism.  It  is  not  a  falling  back  into  the  Jewish  law,  but 
it  is  an  overemphasis  upon  Christianity  as  a  new  law,  and  a 
failure  to  see  clearly  that  the  right  doing  must  spring  from 
an  inner  spirit.  (3)  The  freedom  of  the  spirit  gives  place 
more  and  more  to  the  authority  of  the  church  as  an  external 
and  legal  institution,  whose  officers  are  to  rule  and  govern 
in  all  things.  In  the  period  which  we  are  studying  only 
the  beginnings  of  this  movement  are  apparent.  In  part  it 
was  inevitable.  Indeed,  Paul  himself  helped  prepare  the 
way.  The  church  had  to  move  forward  on  these  three  lines : 
to  define  its  faith  in  creeds,  to  emphasize  rules  of  conduct 
and  require  obedience,  and  to  perfect  and  establish  its 
organization.  Paul  himself,  however,  was  not  lost  from 
the  church.  Though  the  church  fell  below  his  standards, 
yet  he  remained  as  a  leaven  within  her  life,  even  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  His  religion  of  the  spirit  has 
always  been  a  protest  against  the  overemphasis  of  creed 
and  rules  and  organization,  and  has  broken  forth  suc- 
cessfully again  and  again  in  the  great  reformation  move- 
ments. 
Hebrews  The  New  Testament  contains  two  monuments  which  wit- 


FAITH  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  287 

ness  to  the  abiding  influence  of  Paul  in  this  period.  The 
first  is  the  writing  called  "The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews." 
The  title,  which  is  not  a  part  of  the  book  itself,  is  hardly 
correct.  It  is  a  treatise  rather  than  an  epistle,  and  it  was 
probably  for  Christians  in  general  rather  than  for  Jewish 
Christians.  It  was  not  written  by  Paul,  but  it  shows  his 
spirit  and  influence.  Christianity  is  set  forth  as  the  world- 
religion,  existing  from  the  beginning.  Judaism  was  simply 
its  stage  of  preparation ;  after  the  prophets  comes  the  Son. 
And  all  the  ceremony  of  Judaism  is  only  the  symbol  of  the 
spiritual  and  eternal  which  is  in  the  Son.  Christianity  is 
the  religion  of  redemption,  and  Christ  is  the  final  sacrifice 
which  puts  an  end  to  all  others.  Paul  wrote  merely  letters ; 
this  is  a  literary  and  theological  product,  but  it  has  not  the 
freshness  or  life  or  power  that  Paul's  letters  possess. 

Far  greater  than  the  letter  to  the  Hebrews  is  the  group  of  johannine 
writings  which  includes  the  Gospel  and  the  three  epistles  *"*"'^^ 
of  John.  These  four  writings  belong  together,  and  they  too 
bear  eloquent  witness  to  Paul's  influence.  Ancient  tradition 
ascribes  them  to  the  apostle  John.  Many  scholars  think 
that  while  they  represent  the  tradition  of  John's  teaching, 
the  writings  themselves  were  composed  by  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples, or  by  another  John  than  the  apostle.  We  know  but 
little  of  John's  life.  One  tradition  states  that  he  suffered 
early  death  as  martyr  like  his  brother  James.  The  more 
common  tradition  holds  that  he  spent  his  last  years  in 
Ephesus,  beloved  by  all  and  of  great  influence ;  that  he 
wrote  the  Gospel  and  epistles  at  Ephesus  and  the  Revelation 
while  in  exile  at  Patmos ;  and  that  he  died  an  aged  man  at 
the  close  of  the  century. 

Why  was  the  Gospel  of  John  written  ?     For  twenty  or  The  fourth 
thirty  years  the  church  had  had  three  accounts  of  the  words   ^"ge^an/"'^" 
and  deeds  of  Jesus,  our  present  synoptic  Gospels.     Though   character 
the  fourth  Gospel  gives  us  mainly  incidents  from  Jerusalem, 
instead  of  from  Galilee,  it  does  not  add  enough  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  Jesus'  life  to  have  been  written  simply  as  a  supple- 


288  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

ment  to  the  other  three.  The  author  himself  gives  us  his 
purpose.  Out  of  the  many  wonders  which  Jesus  wrought 
he  has  selected  certain  '"signs" ;  and  "these  are  written, 
that  ye  may  believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God ; 
and  that  believing  ye  may  have  life  in  his  name"  (John  20. 
30,  31).  This  is  the  double  purpose — to  set  forth  Christ 
and  to  show  the  life  that  men  have  through  him.  As  we 
read  this  Gospel  carefully  we  see  that  it  is  quite  a  different 
work  from  the  synoptics.  It  is  still  in  the  form  of  a  story 
of  Jesus'  words  and  deeds;  but  it  is  far  more  of  a  sermon 
than  a  biography.  Each  sign  or  saying  of  Jesus  is  like  a 
text  from  which  John  preaches  his  sermon  and  proclaims 
his  faith  in  Christ  and  his  conception  of  Christ.  For  that 
reason  he  does  not  concern  himself  to  distinguish  sharply 
between  his  own  words  and  those  of  Jesus.  This  can  be 
seen,  for  example,  in  the  third  chapter,  where  one  cannot 
separate  definitely  the  words  of  Jesus,  of  John  the  Baptist, 
and  of  the  evangelist.  The  Gospel  is  a  great  confession  of 
faith,  a  great  sermon  like  one  of  Paul's.  The  words  and 
deeds  of  Jesus  are  like  a  window,  through  which  the  evan- 
gelist seeks  to  show  us  his  vision  of  the  eternal.  He  is 
neither  biographer  nor  theologian ;  he  is  a  preacher.  What- 
ever he  writes  he  sets  forth  that  we  "may  believe,"  and  that 
we  "may  have  life  in  his  name." 
The  occasion  The  faith  that  is  here  set  forth  is  nothing  more  than 
for  the  Gospel  p^yi'g  teaching  concerning  Christ,  but  there  was  special 
reason  for  its  declaration  at  this  time.  Almost  all  the  later 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  show  us  that  with  the  last 
years  of  the  first  century  many  different  forms  of  doctrine 
arose  which  claimed  to  be  Christian  teaching,  but  which 
differed  from  the  earlier  faith  of  the  church.  There  were 
teachers  who  declared  that  because  Jesus  was  divine  he 
could  not  have  suffered  and  died.  These  men  made  his  life 
a  mere  show,  and  so  denied  the  actual  humanity  of  our 
Lord.  This  was  called  docetism.  There  were  others,  on 
the  contrary,  especially  among  the  Jewish  Christians,  who 


FAITH  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  289 

denied  his  divinity.    He  was  to  them  simply  a  great  teacher, 
a  prophet  as  others  before  him. 

Over  against  these  two,  John  sets  forth  his  great  message  Jesus  as 
in  his  epistles  and  Gospel.  Jesus  is  for  him  the  eternal  Son  1^%^^  ^nd  as 
of  God  who  was  with  the  Father  from  the  beginning,  and  true  man 
who  has  come  to  be  the  life  and  light  of  men.  This  is  the 
message  of  his  prologue  (i.  1-18).  This  is  his  theme, 
whether  he  reports  the  words  of  Jesus  or  tells  of  his  deeds. 
Thus  the  deeds  which  he  reports  are  "signs."  They  are  not 
thought  of  primarily  as  deeds  of  mercy  wrought  to  help  men, 
but  as  signs  of  the  divine  power  and  majesty  of  Jesus. 
There  are  seven  such  deeds,  finding  their  climax  in  the 
raising  of  Lazarus.  Similarly,  the  words  of  Jesus  which 
he  reports  do  not  concern  themselves  so  much  with  the 
duties  of  men,  as  in  the  sermon  on  the  mount,  but  are, 
rather,  a  setting  forth  of  the  same  theme  of  Jesus'  own 
person  and  its  meaning.  In  lofty  speech  and  beautiful 
figure  this  is  proclaimed  again  and  again :  'T  am  the  living 
bread" ;  "Whosoever  drinketh  of  the  water  that  I  shall  give 
him  shall  never  thirst" ;  "I  am  the  light  of  the  world" ;  'T 
am  the  door  of  the  sheep" ;  "I  am  the  good  shepherd" ; 
"I  am  the  resurrection,  and  the  life" ;  "I  am  the  way,  the 
truth,  and  the  life" ;  "I  am  the  true  vine" ;  'T  have  overcome 
the  world."  At  the  same  time  John  sets  forth  just  as 
clearly  the  real  humanity  of  Jesus.  He  shows  him  to  us 
hungry  and  weary  as  he  rests  by  the  well,  weeping  by  the 
grave  of  his  friend,  struggling  in  the  garden,  suffering  and 
dying  upon  the  cross.  All  this  is  but  Paul's  great  message 
of  the  Christ  "who  was  born  of  the  seed  of  David  according 
to  the  flesh,  who  was  declared  to  be  the  Son  of  God  with 
power,  according  to  the  spirit  of  holiness,  by  the  resurrec- 
tion from  the  dead"  (Rom  i.  3,  4).  But  while  Paul  finds 
his  theme  in  the  resurrection  and  the  living  Christ,  John 
turns  back  to  the  Jesus  who  walked  on  earth,  and  shows  us 
his  glory  in  that  earthly  life.  That  was  John's  great 
service,  to  join  together  the  Jesus  of  Nazareth  whom  the 


with  Christ 
in  God 


290  NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 

Gospels  set  forth  with  the  divine  Christ  whom  Paul  pro- 
claimed, and  to  declare  that  these  two  were  one. 
The  life  John's  Other  purpose  was,  as  he  states  it,  to  set  forth 

Christ  so  that  men  believing  might  have  life.  As  we  read 
these  pages,  we  feel  the  same  spirit  that  speaks  to  us  in 
Paul's  letters :  this  man  writes  of  that  which  is  his  own  life, 
and  which  he  wishes  us  to  have.  Chapters  14  to  17  set  this 
truth  forth  especially.  No  passages  in  the  New  Testament 
have  been  more  cherished  by  Christians  or  have  had  a 
deeper  influence.  That  is  why  this  Gospel  has  been  called 
from  early  days  "the  spiritual  Gospel."  It  has  been  the 
great  book  of  personal  devotion.  One  need  only  begin 
with  the  fourteenth  chapter  and  mark  the  familiar  passages 
to  realize  the  place  that  this  book  has  filled :  "Let  not  your 
heart  be  troubled.  In  my  Father's  house  are  many  man- 
sions. I  am  the  way,  and  the  truth,  and  the  life;  no  one 
cometh  unto  the  Father,  but  by  me.  Whatsoever  ye  shall 
ask  in  my  name,  that  will  I  do.  I  will  pray  the  Father, 
and  he  will  give  you  another  Comforter,  even  the  Spirit  of 
truth.  If  a  man  love  me,  he  will  keep  my  word:  and  my 
Father  will  love  him,  and  we  will  come  unto  him,  and 
make  our  abode  with  him.  Peace  I  leave  with  you ;  my 
peace  I  give  unto  you :  not  as  the  world  giveth,  give  I  unto 
you.  I  am  the  vine,  ye  are  the  branches :  he  that  abideth  in 
me,  and  I  in  him,  the  same  beareth  much  fruit."  And  in  all 
this,  the  question  is  not  whether  John  is  giving  us  the 
literal  speech  of  Jesus,  any  more  than  Paul  in  his  preaching. 
The  message  of  John  is  essentially  that  of  Paul,  and  the 
real  question  is  whether  they  are  setting  forth  the  mind  and 
spirit  of  Jesus.  That  such  a  book  should  come  from  the 
closing  years  of  the  first  century  is  testimony,  not  only  to 
the  abiding  influence  of  Paul's  teaching,  but  even  more  to 
the  abiding  power  of  the  spirit  of  Christ. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    READING   AND    STUDY 

Mention   six   dangers   or    faults   against   which   the   readers   are 
warned  in  James.     Here  as  elsewhere  cite  chapter  and  verse. 


FAITH  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  291 

Make  a  list  of  the  passages  in  First  Timothy  which  refer  to 
doctrine  or  teaching  or  the  faith. 

Read  the  prologue  of  the  fourth  Gospel,  John  i.  1-18,  and  make 
a   list  of  John's  various   statements  about   Christ. 

Make  a  list  of  the  seven  miracles,  or  "signs,"  recorded  in  John, 
beginning  with  the  marriage  feast  at  Cana  and  ending  with  the 
raising  of  Lazarus. 

Make  a  list  of  at  least  eight  of  the  sayings  of  Jesus  concerning 
himself,  such  as  "I  am  the  living  bread,"  as  found  in  John. 

From  John  14  to  17  select  ten  or  more  individual  verses  or 
passages  which  set  forth  the  ideal  of  the  life  of  the  disciple  in 
relation  to  God  or  Christ. 


Two 
questions 


The  bishop 
and  his 
authority  in 
the  year  150 


CHAPTER  XLI 
THE  LIFE  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH 

We  have  no  such  writings  as  Paul's  letters  to  the  Co- 
rinthians to  give  us  the  picture  of  the  life  of  the  church 
in  the  last  part  of  the  century.  Some  facts  we  may  gather 
from  the  late  epistles  and  the  book  of  Revelation.  Aside 
from  these  we  have  only  the  writings  outside  the  New  Tes- 
tament which  come  from  the  early  part  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Two  questions  call  for  answer:  (i)  What  was  the 
inner  life  of  the  church?  (2)  What  was  its  place  in  the 
empire  ? 

There  are  two  words  around  which  we  may  gather  the 
story  of  these  last  years  of  the  first  century  and  opening 
decades  of  the  second.  They  are  bishops  and  martyrs.  The 
first  word  suggests  the  change  that  took  place  in  the  inner 
life  and  organization  of  the  church.  The  different  steps  of 
this  change  we  cannot  tell,  but  we  do  know  the  marked 
contrast  between  the  church  of  150  and  the  churches 
at  the  time  of  Paul's  death.  The  churches  of  Paul 
had  only  the  simplest  organization,  as  we  have  seen. 
Men  talked  of  service,  not  of  authority.  This  service 
was  of  many  kinds,  but  it  was  all  the  gift  of  one  Spirit. 
The  inspired  prophets  and  teachers  of  the  Word  stood  first. 
But  the  Spirit  belonged  to  the  whole  church.  A  century 
later  all  this  is  changed.  We  find  three  ofiiices  in  each 
church — bishop,  elders,  and  deacons;  but  the  authority  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  one  man,  the  bishop.  He  is  no  longer 
the  simple  overseer.  He  has  taken  up  within  himself  the 
various  duties  that  at  first  belonged  to  different  men  or  to 
the  church  as  a  whole.  The  practical  affairs  of  the  church 
are  still  in  his  hands,  but  these  are  of  greatly  increased 
importance.     He  has  charge  of  the  worship.     Men  are  be- 

292 


LIFE  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  293 

ginning  to  feel  that  the  inspiration  is  no  longer  in  the 
church  as  a  whole,  or  in  certain  prophets  and  teachers,  but 
in  the  bishop.  The  simple,  unregulated  worship  is  gone. 
There  is  no  longer  any  chance  for  the  irregularities  that 
appeared  at  Corinth.  The  bishop  presides  at  the  service, 
which  follows  a  regular  order,  and  it  is  he  that  preaches. 
He  has  charge  of  the  church  discipline.  The  apostles  and 
eyewitnesses  are  gone.  He  represents  the  tradition  of  what 
the  true  faith  is.  Instead  of  a  group  of  overseers  or  elders, 
this  bishop  stands  alone.  Just  what  the  position  of  the  elders 
is  we  do  not  know.  The  deacons  are  simply  the  officers  who 
carry  out  the  bishop's  directions.  As  yet,  however,  the 
bishop  is  not  placed  over  any  district  or  diocese ;  he  simply 
directs  the  life  of  the  one  congregation. 

All  this  took  place  very  gradually.  We  do  not  know  Some 
the  steps,  but  we  know  some  of  the  causes,  (i)  There  *=^"^^® 
was  the  decline  of  faith  in  immediate  inspiration.  The 
first  outburst  of  enthusiasm  gradually  passed.  There  was 
a  lessening  number  of  prophets  who  felt  themselves  directly 
inspired.  (2)  There  was  found  to  be  a  need  of  regulating 
these  inspired  leaders.  Paul  had  met  this  at  Corinth.  The 
inspiration  did  not  always  seem  to  be  genuine  or  profitable 
to  the  church.  All  manner  of  things  could  be  said  and 
done  and  the  claim  made  that  they  were  inspired.  Early  writ- 
ings show  that  some  of  these  "prophets"  made  their  in- 
spiration a  means  of  living  ofif  the  church,  and  rules  had 
to  be  adopted  to  guard  against  this.  The  conflict  between 
the  "officials"  and  the  "inspired"  leaders  lasted  through  the 
second  century,  but  long  before  the  end  the  regularly 
chosen  officials  had  taken  the  first  place.  (3)  The  same 
need  of  order  appeared  in  other  respects.  As  the  church 
grew,  its  practical  interests  increased  in  importance  and 
number.  Matters  of  discipline,  of  the  care  of  the  poor, 
of  protection  in  times  of  persecution,  of  representation  of 
the  local  church  so  that  it  could  act  with  other  churches, 
and  other  like  interests  demanded  responsible  men  in  per- 


294 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


The  case  of 
Diotrephes 


Moral  life ; 
charity 


Public 
worship 


manent  position.  With  the  second  century  questions  of 
doctrine  became  ever  more  important.  Over  against  all 
manner  of  vagaries  and  strange  teachings  these  officials 
stood  as  the  custodians  and  guarantors  of  the  faith  handed 
down  from  the  apostles. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  some  that  the  third  epistle  of 
John  is  a  witness  of  the  early  stage  of  the  controversy  be- 
tween the  regular  official,  or  bishop,  and  the  inspired  proph- 
ets. Diotrephes  seems  to  have  been  such  an  official  who 
refused  to  welcome  the  traveling  prophets  when  they  came : 
"Neither  doth  he  himself  receive  the  brethren,  and  them 
that  would  he  forbiddeth  and  caste  h  them  out  of  the  church" 
(3  John  10).  He  is  censured  as  a  church  boss,  "who  loveth 
to  have  the  preeminence."  Gains,  to  whom  the  letter  is 
addressed,  is  bidden  to  receive  the  "brethren  and  strangers," 
and  to  set  them  forward  on  their  journey.  All  these  changes 
occurred  gradually,  and  they  were  in  process  during  the 
last  years  of  the  first  century. 

In  its  moral  life  the  church  seems  to  have  made  steady 
advance.  Roman  critics  of  Christianity  like  Pliny  admit  the 
moral  excellence  of  the  life  of  its  followers.  The  writings 
of  this  time  all  show  the  constant  emphasis  upon  the  pure 
and  true  life.  The  charity  of  the  church  was  especially  rich 
and  beautiful.  And  yet  there  was  wisdom  in  its  exercise. 
The  traveling  brother  was  cared  for  two  or  three  days.  If 
he  did  not  pass  on  then,  he  was  to  work ;  but  the  church 
was  to  help  him  find  employment.  The  church  had  followed 
in  the  line  of  Paul's  teaching:  "If  any  will  not  work,  neither 
let  him  eat"  (2  Thess  3.  10).  No  doubt  the  industry  and 
sobriety  which  the  church  inculcated  helped  to  make  it  an 
economic  force  in  the  empire. 

The  regular  worship  of  the  church  was  on  the  first  day  of 
the  week.  Though  more  and  more  under  the  direct  leader- 
ship of  one  official,  it  was  still  a  very  simple  service.  Lessons 
were  read  from  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament.  New 
Testament  writings  were  not  yet  placed  by  the  side  of  this 


LIFE  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  295 

as  Sacred  Scripture,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  in  different 
parts  of  the  church  letters  of  Paul  or  portions  of  gospel  story 
were  read,  the  latter  being"  called  the  ''memoirs  of  the 
apostles."  In  earlier  days  the  prophets  and  other  inspired 
leaders  would  speak ;  later  this  fell  to  the  officials.  The 
church  had  inherited  the  psalms  from  the  synagogue  and 
used  these  in  her  service.  To  these  she  added  Christian 
hymns.  It  is  perhaps  a  portion  of  one  of  these  that  we  have 
in  I  Tim  3.  16: 

He  who  was  manifested  in  the  flesh. 

Justified  in  thf  spirit, 

Seen  of  angels. 
Preached  among  the  nations, 

Believed  on  in  the  world, 

Received  up   in  glory. 

The  Lord's  Supper  was  celebrated  in  the  morning.  The 
regular  church  supper,  known  as  the  love  feast,  or  agape, 
had  been  separated  from  the  former  and  was  held  in  the 
evening. 

From  the  close  of  this  period,  that  is,  about  the  middle  The 
of  the  second  century,  dates  the  first  formal  creed  of  the  '^^l^^^' 
church  so  far  as  known,  probably  originating  in  Rome.  It 
was  used  by  the  candidate  for  baptism.  The  earliest  baptism 
was  with  the  simple  words,  "in  the  name  of  Jesus."  Later 
the  baptism  was  "in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the 
Son  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit."  This  trinitarian  formula 
was  now  expanded  into  a  creed  which  still  moved  about  the 
three  persons  of  the  Trinity.  "I  believe  in  God  the  Father 
almighty;  and  in  Christ  Jesus  his  only  begotten  Son,  our 
Lord  ;  born  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  the  Virgin  Mary,  crucified 
under  Pontius  Pilate  and  buried,  arising  on  the  third  day 
from  the  dead,  seated  on  the  right  hand  of  God,  whence 
he  cometh  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead.  And  I  believe 
in  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  holy  church,  the  forgiveness  of  sins, 
tlic  resurrection  of  the  flesh."     Like  everything  else  at  this 


296 


NEW  TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Lord's  Day 
and  Sabbath 


Martyr 
beginnings 
under  Nero 


Continued 
hostility 


time,  this  creed  was  referred  back  to  the  apostles  and  so  was 
called  the  Apostles'  Creed. 

The  first  day  of  the  week  was  regularly  used  for  worship, 
and  this  may  have  been  the  case  from  the  first.  Its  Christian 
name  was  Lord's  Day  (Rev  i.  10).  It  was  never  called  the 
Sabbath  day,  and  was  never  by  the  early  Christians  identified 
with  the  latter.  Paul  had  classed  the  Sabbath  days  with 
other  Jewish  customs  made  obsolete  by  the  gospel  (Col  2. 
16,  17;  Gal  4.  9,  10).  As  Sunday  was  not  the  Sabbath  day, 
the  Christians  did  not  refrain  from  labor  upon  it.  It  was 
first  of  all  a  day  of  worship  and  gladness.  Gradually  it 
came  to  be  a  day  of  rest.  But  it  was  centuries  before  any 
one  thought  of  confounding  the  Christian  Lord's  Day  with 
the  Jewish  Sabbath,  or  of  applying  the  fourth  commandment 
to  the  former. 

The  other  word  about  which  the  history  of  this  period 
may  be  centered  is  that  of  martyr.  It  is  the  time  of  begin- 
ning persecutions  on  the  part  of  the  state.  The  word 
"martyr"  means  simply  "witness,"  and  the  martyr  was  one 
who  gave  witness  to  his  faith  at  peril  or  at  cost  of  his  life. 
It  was  Nero  that  began  this  persecution.  The  great  con- 
flagration at  Rome  occurred  in  the  year  64.  Rightly  or 
wrongly,  the  popular  mind  charged  Nero  with  the  deed. 
Nor  were  the  people  satisfied  even  when  he  began  to  re- 
imburse those  that  had  suffered  loss  and  to  rebuild  the  city 
in  splendid  manner.  They  wanted  some  one  to  suffer  for 
the  crime.  Nero  picked  upon  the  Christians  for  this  pur- 
pose. They  were  poor,  they  were  disliked.  The  people 
were  ready  to  see  them  suffer,  especially  as  their  death 
was  made  a  public  sport;  and  Nero  diverted  attention 
from  himself. 

This  of  itself  was  simply  an  episode,  but  it  seems  that 
what  Nero  began  in  this  special  manner  became  a  more  or 
less  settled  attitude  of  hostility  to  the  Christians  on  the  part 
of  the  state.  We  are  not  sure  of  the  date  of  the  later 
writings  of  the  New  Testament,  but  Peter,  large  portions  of 


LIFE  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  297 

First  Timothy,  James,  and  Revelation  all  come  within  this 
time,  and  all  of  these  refer  to  persecutions. 

Almost  exactly  a  century  after  the  burning  of  Rome,  Evidence 
Pliny  was  sent  by  the  emperor  Trajan  to  be  governor  of  ^^°^^^°y 
Bithynia  and  Pontus  in  Asia  Minor.  There  he  found  that 
the  Christian  religion  had  spread  very  widely,  not  simply 
in  the  cities  where  it  was  always  strongest,  but  in  villages 
and  country  also.  The  temples  were  being  deserted,  and 
trades  that  depended  upon  the  temple  patronage  were  being 
interfered  with,  such  as  the  sale  of  fodder  for  animals  kept 
for  sacrifice.  Pliny  writes  to  inquire  just  how  he  is  to 
proceed  against  the  Christians,  and  whether  he  has  been 
taking  the  right  course.  He  does  not  ask  whether  he  should 
proceed  against  them,  but  simply  how ;  and  the  whole  cor- 
respondence, which  has  been  preserved  for  us,  suggests 
that  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  state  toward  the  Christians 
was  a  recognized  policy. 

Why  should  the  empire  have  persecuted  the  Christians?  Reasons 
It  was  not  religious  intolerance,  for  the  empire  welcomed  ho'stiu^^ 
and  adopted  all  manner  of  faiths  from  all  lands.  It  was 
not  the  crimes  of  the  Christians.  Whenever  serious  investi- 
gation was  made,  as  by  Pliny,  the  popular  charges  were 
seen  to  be  unfounded.  The  real  reason  was  political,  with 
popular  hatred  pushing  on  the  officers  of  the  state.  The 
one  thing  upon  which  Rome  insisted  was  the  unity  of  the 
empire  and  absolute  reverence  for  her  laws  and  order.  With 
these  interests  Christianity  seemed  to  interfere. 

And  first  with  the  principle  of  unity.     The  first  fault  of   Opposition 
the  Christians  was  that  they  stood  for  a  unity  which  was   £eu^^^'^° 
not  that  of  the  empire.     It  was  the  unity  of  their   faith,   andorgan- 
their  brotherhood,  of  the  kingdom  of  God.     The  Romans 
wanted  no  other  bond  of  unity  than  that  of  the  empire. 
With  religious  societies  and  religious  meetings  there  was 
no  interference.    But  other  associations  were  most  carefully 
watched.    Benefit  clubs  among  the  poor,  such  as  those  with 
burial  funds,  were  about  the  only  associations  tolerated,  and 


298 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


The  emperor 
cult 


Opposition 

and 

prejudices 


these  were  strictly  controlled.  It  was  the  fear  of  anything 
like  a  common  political  association  among  the  people  which 
countries  like  Russia  and  Turkey  show  in  our  own  day. 
The  Christians  kept  the  laws  of  the  empire.  They  planned 
no  insurrection.  The  church  was  no  political  organization. 
And  yet  the  government  discerned  rightly  that  here  was  a 
force  that  in  its  final  spirit  was  opposed  to  the  spirit  of 
autocracy  that  belonged  to  Rome.  Nevertheless  the  church 
in  the  end  might  have  saved  the  empire,  if  her  help  had  been 
called  upon  soon  enough.  Rome  relied  upon  an  external 
and  autocratic  power  to  hold  the  empire.  That  was  not 
enough.  It  was  the  decay  of  the  people  that  caused  her 
doom,  and  the  church  might  have  changed  that  decay  into 
life. 

Later  on  the  refusal  of  the  Christians  to  worship  the 
emperor  was  a  charge  brought  against  them.  But  this  too 
was  looked  upon  as  political  and  not  religious.  The  worship 
of  the  emperor  was  simply  one  part  of  the  plan  to  assert 
and  secure  the  political  unity  of  the  empire.  This  emperor 
cult  is  referred  to  in  Rev  13  as  the  worship  of  the  beast. 

Back  of  this  principle  of  the  state  there  lay  the  strong 
prejudice  of  the  people  which  was  shared  by  officers  and 
emperors  as  well.  The  prejudice  took  many  forms,  (i) 
There  was  the  opposition,  such  as  Paul  met  at  Ephesus, 
of  tradesmen  whose  business  suffered  by  the  spread  of 
Christianity  with  its  hostility  to  pagan  worship  and  to  the 
practice  of  vice.  Then,  as  now,  there  were  large  profits 
joined  to  such  practices,  and  we  need  only  think  of  the 
hostility  shown  to-day  by  those  who  make  profit  from  com- 
mercialized vice  in  saloon  and  gambling  den  and  brothel. 

(2)  There  was  no  doubt  personal  opposition  from  those 
whose  families  had  been  divided,  who  saw  believers  separat- 
ing from  fathers  and  mothers  and  brothers  and  sisters 
because  of  the  new  faith.  Enemies  could  only  explain  this 
strange  power  over  converts  by  charging  sorcery  and  magic. 

(3)  There  were  unfounded  charges  that  were  raised  against 


LIFE  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  299 

the  Christians  for  centuries.  The  Lord's  Supper,  with  its 
wine  used  as  symbol  of  blood,  was  made  the  occasion  for 
the  story  that  Christians  killed  little  children  and  drank 
their  blood,  just  as  the  charge  of  ritual  murder  against  the 
Jews  still  persists  in  Russia  to-day.  Profligacy  was  charged 
because  of  the  secret  meetings  at  which  both  sexes  were 
present.  (4)  More  than  anything  else,  it  was  the  inflexible 
attitude  of  the  Christians  about  certain  matters  that  angered 
the  people  and  brought  the  severe  condemnation  of  even 
men  like  Pliny  and  later  on  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius. 
Aside  from  Judaism,  Christianity  represented  here  some- 
thing wholly  new  in  religion,  for  ,\vhich  even  Marcus 
Aurelius  had  no  comprehension.  For  the  Romans  religion 
was  a  matter  of  social  custom  and  convention.  Its  forms 
could  be  changed  or  added  to  at  will.  To  add  a  new  form 
or  a  new  god  might  be  very  wise  and  safe.  It  might  even 
be  well  to  erect  an  altar  to  an  "unknown  god,"  lest  one 
should  have  been  overlooked.  In  any  case,  there  was  no 
possible  harm  in  such  conformity.  For  the  Christians  reli- 
gion was  a  principle  of  conscience  and  a  supreme  loyalty 
to  one  God :  "We  must  obey  God  rather  than  men."  To 
others  the  attitude  of  the  Christians  seemed  nothing  short 
of  willful  perversity  and  wicked  obstinacy.  Especially  did 
this  appear  when  they  were  brought  up  for  trial.  Often  all 
that  was  asked  was  to  pour  out  a  little  wine  before  a  shrine 
of  the  emperor,  or  to  deny  the  Name  with  which  they  were 
called,  the  name  of  Christ.  Such  refusal  angered  officials 
as  well  as  people.  To  the  former  it  seemed  highly 
dangerous :  it  was  the  spirit  of  insubordination  which  in  an 
individual  might  not  be  serious,  but  in  a  great  and  growing 
fellowship  meant  danger  to  the  empire. 

For  this  reason,  as  we  learn  from  Pliny's  letters,  it  was   The  crime 
thought  enough  to  convict  a  man  of  being  a  Christian,  even   ^1**.^'°^  * 

,  ,  ,    ,         .  Chnstian 

though  no  special  crimes  were  charged  against  him.  Over 
against  this,  the  Christian  leaders  of  the  second  century 
pleaded  that  they  might  be  convicted  upon  the  proof  of 


300 


NEW   TESTAMENT    HISTORY 


Apocalypses 
and  their 
character 


The  meaning 
of  Revelation 


crime,  not  by  the  charges  of  prejudice.  Their  position  is 
nobly  voiced  by  a  word  of  Justin  Martyr  that  has  come  down 
from  the  middle  of  this  century:  "It  is  our  maxim  that  we 
can  suffer  harm  from  none,  unless  we  be  convicted  as  doers 
of  evil,  or  proved  to  be  wicked.  You  may  slay  us,  indeed, 
but  you  cannot  hurt  us.  But,  lest  any  should  say  that  this 
is  a  senseless  and  rash  assertion,  I  entreat  that  the  charges 
against  us  may  be  examined ;  and  if  they  be  substantiated, 
let  us  be  punished  as  is  right."  He  pleads  that  "neither  by 
prejudice  nor  desire  of  popularity  from  the  superstitious, 
nor  by  any  unthinking  impulse  of  zeal,  nor  by  that  evil 
report  which  has  so  long  kept  possession  of  your  minds, 
you  may  be  urged  to  give  a  decision  against  yourselves." 

The  book  of  Revelation  is  a  writing  born  out  of  this 
situation  of  persecution  and  danger.  It  may  be  studied 
either  as  an  apocalypse  of  the  future,  giving  us  prediction 
of  what  is  to  be,  or  as  a  book  of  religion  written  to  strengthen 
faith  and  give  comfort.  All  apocalypses  have  this  double 
character.  They  come  out  of  times  of  great  persecution 
and  danger.  Their  purpose  is  to  encourage  the  faithful  lest 
they  fall  away.  The  method  of  these  books  is  that  of  visions. 
The  writers  are  prophets  who  see.  They  use  pictures  and 
symbols  constantly.  These  pictures  are  not  original  with  the 
individual  writer.  They  are  more  or  less  the  common 
language  of  such  productions. 

While  we  cannot  interpret  with  certainty  all  the  symbols 
of  the  book,  its  general  meaning  on  the  apocalyptic  side  is 
clear.  It  sets  forth  the  story  of  the  future  in  pictures. 
Rome  has  been  persecuting  the  Christians.  Her  time  is  now 
fulfilled.  She  is  the  Babylon  that  is  to  be  destroyed.  The 
world  is  hopelessly  evil.  Salvation  is  to  come  not  by  the 
growth  and  spread  of  the  Christian  faith,  but  by  a  great 
catastrophe  which  is  to  destroy  the  present  world.  Then 
the  New  Jerusalem  is  to  be  let  down  out  of  heaven.  In  it 
the  saints  are  to  be  gathered  together  and  God  is  to  dwell 
with  them  in  the  city  of  light. 


LIFE  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  301 

All  this  apocalypticism  represents  something  taken  over  Limitations 
from  the  Jewish  church  of  which  Christianity  was  gradually  "^  *^®  ^°°^ 
ridding  itself.  More  and  more  the  church  saw  that  the 
world  was  to  be  changed  and  the  kingdom  was  to  come  by 
gradual  moral  and  spiritual  conquest,  and  for  this  reason 
many  opposed  the  reception  of  this  book  into  the  New 
Testament. 

But  all  this  must  not  hide  from  us  the  real  message  of  The  double 
the  work.  That  lies  in  its  practical  purpose  which  is  ap-  ""^^^^^e 
parent  all  the  way  through.  The  book  was  probably  written 
about  95,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  but  it  reflects  the  con- 
ditions of  Nero's  persecution  as  well.  The  disciples  are  in 
danger.  They  are  facing  the  demand  that  they  should 
worship  the  beast,  that  is,  the  image  of  the  emperor,  or 
else  be  put  to  death  (Rev  13.  15).  The  writer  sets  before 
them  the  end  that  is  near  at  hand.  He  brings  a  message  of 
warning :  the  Lord  is  coming  as  a  thief  in  the  night ;  let 
his  followers  cleanse  themselves  from  all  evil,  for  he  will 
give  to  each  one  according  to  his  works.  But  above  all  he 
writes  for  encouragement,  that  he  may  help  believers  to 
remain  faithful. 

The  words  of  warning  are  found  especially  in  the  mes-  warnings  to 
sages  to  the  seven  churches  of  Asia  Minor  to  which  the   ^^  ^1^^° 

°   _  _  _  churches 

writing  is  addressed.  These  opening  chapters  give  us  a 
picture  of  the  church  life  of  the  time.  On  the  whole,  the 
picture  is  encouraging.  Three  dangers  are  in  these  warn- 
ings. There  was  the  danger  of  simple  indifference,  the  loss 
of  spiritual  life:  "Thou  hast  a  name  that  thou  livest,  and 
art  dead"  (3.  i).  "I  know  thy  works,  that  thou  art  neither 
cold  nor  hot"  (3.  15).  There  was  the  danger  of  sinful 
laxness,  such  as  appeared  at  Corinth,  joining  in  the  old  idol 
feasts  and  pagan  practices.  This  is  probably  what  is  meant 
by  the  reference  to  the  Nicolaitans  (2.  6),  to  Balaam 
(2.  14,  15),  and  to  "the  woman  Jezebel"  (2.  20).  Such 
faithlessness  is  called  fornication,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Old  Testament  prophets.     The  third  danger  was  that  of 


302 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Three  causes 
of  encour- 
agement 


The  faith  of 
the  book 


apostasy.  It  is  significant  of  the  higher  moral  Hfe  of  the 
churches  that  the  references  are  not  to  common  immorahties. 

The  dominant  note,  however,  is  that  of  encouragement. 
Let  the  disciples  be  faithful,  first  of  all,  because  of  the  sure 
reward.  "To  him  that  overcometh,  to  him  will  I  give  to 
eat  of  the  tree  of  life,  which  is  in  the  paradise  of  God." 
"Be  thou  faithful  unto  death,  and  I  will  give  thee  the  crown 
of  life"  (2.  7,  10).  In  varied  phrase  there  is  set  forth  again 
and  again  the  reward  for  "him  that  overcometh."  The 
second  cause  for  encouragement  for  the  persecuted  Chris- 
tians is  the  coming  overthrow  of  Rome  and  the  powers  of 
evil.  Rome  is  "Babylon  the  Great,"  "the  woman  drunken 
with  the  blood  of  the  saints,"  "the  great  city,  which  reigneth 
over  the  kings  of  the  earth"  (17.  5,  6,  18).  But  her  hour 
is  come.  The  kings  of  the  earth  and  the  merchants  who 
shared  in  her  wealth  shall  look  on  and  mourn  her  destruction 
and  her  torment.  Not  so  the  saints :  "Rejoice  over  her,  thou 
heaven  and  ye  saints,  and  ye  apostles,  and  ye  prophets;  for 
God  hath  judged  your  judgment  upon  her"  (18.  9-20). 
The  final  cause  for  encouragement  is  the  vision  of  the  glory 
that  awaits  the  saints,  the  new  heaven  and  new  earth  that 
are  to  come  when  the  old  is  destroyed,  "And  I  saw  the 
holy  city,  new  Jerusalem,  coming  down  out  of  heaven  from 
God,  made  ready  as  a  bride  adorned  for  her  husband.  And 
I  heard  a  great  voice  out  of  the  throne  saying,  Behold,  the 
tabernacle  of  God  is  with  men,  and  he  shall  dwell  with 
them,  and  they  shall  be  his  peoples,  and  God  himself  shall 
be  with  them,  and  be  their  God"  (21.  1-4). 

The  real  message  of  the  book  lies  not  in  the  visions  of 
destruction  nor  in  other  prophecies  of  things  to  come. 
Neither  do  we  find  it  in  the  elaborate  pictures  of  the  new 
Jerusalem,  with  its  equal  length  and  breadth  and  height. 
Rather  it  is  in  that  great  faith  which  breathes  through  all 
Messianic  and  apocalyptic  hope  from  the  Old  Testament 
prophets  on:  No  forces  of  evil  can  stand  out  against  the 
power  of  God.     Whatever  the  oppression  and  the  burden 


LIFE  OF  THE  LATER  CHURCH  303 

now,   God   and   good   and   righteousness   shall   rule    in   the 
earth. 

The  persecution  of  the  Christians  continued  intermittently  Extent  of 
long  after  this  period.  The  actual  number  of  the  martyred  pe'^^ecutjon 
was  not  so  large.  There  were  probably  fewer  Christians 
that  lost  their  lives  in  any  one  persecution  than  there  were 
Chinese  Christians  who  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Boxers 
or  Armenian  believers  at  the  hands  of  the  Turks  in  these 
last  years.  But  the  danger  was  an  always  present  one, 
though  active  persecution  came  and  went ;  and  it  was  held 
over  the  Christians  by  the  all-embracing  power  of  the  great 
empire. 

More  important  than  the  actual  number  slain  was  the  Effects 
effect  upon  the  life  of  the  church.  In  times  of  active  perse- 
cution not  a  few  fell  away.  The  church  as  a  whole  proved 
steadfast,  and  the  noble  example  of  loyal  martyrs  was  of 
the  deepest  influence.  Men  remembered  such  words  as  those 
of  Polycarp,  who  suffered  in  166:  "Fourscore  and  six  years 
have  I  served  him,  and  he  has  done  me  no  wrong.  How, 
then,  can  I  speak  evil  of  my  King,  who  saved  me  ?"  Through  spread  of 
all  these  years  Christianity  spread  steadily.  It  entered  the  Christianity 
army.  From  the  cities  it  spread  to  village  and  country. 
It  began  with  the  lowest  ranks,  but  it  reached  some  of  wealth 
and  high  station.  There  is  good  reason  to  hold  that  Flavins 
Clemens,  consul  and  cousin  of  the  emperor,  who  was  exe- 
cuted by  Domitian,  suffered  that  fate  for  being  a  Christian, 
as  was  also  his  wife  Flavia  Domitilla.  "We  are  but  of 
yesterday,"  writes  Tertullian  proudly  a  century  or  so  later, 
"and  yet  we  already  fill  your  cities,  islands,  camps,  your 
palace,  senate,  and  forum.  We  have  left  you  only  your 
temples." 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  READING  AND  STUDY 

Look  carefully  through  James,  First  Peter,  and  Heb  lo  to  12, 
finding  in  each  of  these  one  or  more  references  to  persecution  of 
the  Christians.  Note  especially  Heb  11.  It  is  not  a  theological 
study  of   faith,  but  has  a  practical   purpose.      What   is   this? 


304  NEW  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

Read  Rev  i  to  3.  Make  a  list  of  some  things  commended  and 
some  criticized  in  these  churches,  giving  references.  Make  a  list 
of  the  passages  containing  the  v^rord  "overcometh,"  and  note  the 
different  rewards  promised. 

Read  Rev  7.  9-17  and  14.  1-5.  Note  that  these  passages  reflect 
the  impression  made  upon  the  church  by  the  death  of  the  martyrs, 
and  offer  encouragement  by  the  picture  of  their  reward. 

Read  Rev  18  as  to  the  fall  of  Rome.  Compare  Isa  14.  3-20  and 
the  lament  over  the  fall  of  Babylon. 

Read  Rev  21.  i  to  22.  5  for  the  description  of  the  New  Jeru- 
salem.   Note  the  effort  that  is  made  to  picture  this  to  the  eye. 


CHAPTER    XLII 
THE  MAKING  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

If  the  church  at  the  time  of  Paul's  death  be  compared  Two  great 
with  the  church  of  the  year  200,  two  great  changes  will  be  *^  *°^** 
noted.  The  first  of  these  has  just  been  discussed.  It  is 
the  change  from  the  simple  brotherhood  to  the  ecclesiastical 
institution,  from  the  free  guidance  of  the  Spirit  and  its 
democracy  to  the  single  bishop  in  each  church  with  his 
supreme  authority.  The  second  change  came  with  the  mak- 
ing of  a  Christian  Scripture,  our  own  New  Testament. 
The  church  of  the  year  50  had  its  gospel,  but  it  was  not  a 
writing  or  a  book.  The  church  of  the  year  200  had  its 
collection  of  sacred  writings  which  it  placed  by  the  side  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

No  other  deed  of  the  early  church  was  so  important  as  The  New 
this.    We  cannot  conceive  the  history  of  Christianity  without   ^s^^t^eTrelt 
these  Christian  writings.    Nor  can  we  overestimate  what  the  gift  from  the 
treasure  is  that  has  been  thus  bequeathed  to  us.     We  need  e"'y<=^"ch 
only  think  of  two  of  its  parts — the  Gospels  and  Paul,    The 
great  fact  of  Christianity  is  Christ.     It  is  not  some  doc- 
trine  about    him,    nor    some    institution    developed   by    his 
followers.     The   great   creative    fact    from   which   all   else 
sprang  is  the  life  and  spirit  and  teaching  of  Jesus.    That  is 
what  the  Gospels  bring  us.    They  simply  set  Jesus  before  us, 
and  let  him  walk  and   speak  and  work  his  great  deeds. 
Next  to  him  stands  Paul,  not  the  creator  but  the  matchless 
interpreter.     No  one  experienced  the  meaning  of  the  new 
faith  in  such  fullness  and  depth  as  he ;  no  one  set  it  forth 
with  such  clearness  and  power.    Every  religious  movement 
undergoes  change.     It  develops  creeds  and  ceremonies  and 
institutions,  and  it  has  need  of  these.     But  often  the  life 
itself  dies  beneath  the  weight  of  all  this,  or  else  its  spirit 

305 


3o6 


NEW  TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


Dangers 


Two 
questions 


The  gospel 
at  first  not 
written 


is  radically  changed.  Christianity  has  not  escaped  this 
danger,  but  it  has  always  had  its  New  Testament,  the  writ- 
ings that  set  forth  the  great  creative  source  in  Jesus  and 
the  first  and  greatest  interpretation  in  Paul.  And  so  it  has 
always  kept  the  means  for  its  own  reformation. 

The  gaining  of  the  New  Testament  as  a  fixed  collection 
of  sacred  writings  was  not  without  its  danger  as  well,  as 
history  has  shown.  There  was  the  danger  that  men  should 
worship  the  letter  of  these  writings  and  lose  the  spirit  which 
they  were  meant  to  preserve.  There  was  the  danger  of 
the  idea  of  the  sacredness  of  the  letter,  a  theory  that  was 
taken  from  Judaism.  There  was  the  possibility  that  the 
book  and  its  words  might  take  the  place  of  the  Christ  and 
his  gospel  as  Paul  stood  for  them.  But  the  making  of  the 
New  Testament,  in  any  case,  was  inevitable,  and  we  have 
simply  to  ask  how  it  came  about.  Here,  again,  we  must 
go  beyond  the  apostolic  age  into  the  second  century  in 
order  to  understand  what  the  first  century  had  begun. 

There  are  two  distinct  questions  to  be  considered:  First, 
How  did  these  writings  come  to  be  composed?  Second, 
How  did  the  church  come  to  regard  these  writings  as 
sacred,  to  form  them  into  a  collection,  and  to  set  them  by 
the  side  of  the  Old  Testament? 

It  was  the  living  word  that  counted  in  the  early  church 
and  not  the  writing.  Jesus  himself  neither  wrote  nor 
ordered  the  writing  of  his  sayings.  When  he  sent  his  dis- 
ciples forth  it  was  to  preach.  They  were  to  win  men  by 
the  living  word.  They  needed  no  authority  of  book.  They 
had  simply  to  bear  the  good  news  to  men.  It  was  the  same 
with  Paul  as  with  the  first  disciples,  and  it  remained  the 
same  for  the  first  century  and  longer.  It  was  a  practical 
necessity  that  caused  men  to  take  the  pen,  and  the  writing 
was  distinctly  secondary  to  the  spoken  word.  How  this 
came  about  with  Paul  has  already  been  seen.  The  apostle 
could  not  always  be  present  with  the  various  churches. 
Sometimes  he  sent  special  messengers.     Often  he  wrote  to 


MAKING  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT       307 

them  to  say  what  lie  would  otherwise  have  spoken  face  to 
face. 

The  story  of  the  writing  of  the  Gospels  is  largely  hidden  The 
from  us.  What  Luke  tells  us  in  his  opening  verses  is  very  ^^uinings 
interesting.  He  says  that  many  had  undertaken  to  write  the 
gospel  story  before  him.  He  indicates  that  these,  like  him- 
self, were  not  eyewitnesses,  but  had  to  depend  upon  what  had 
been  handed  down  by  those  who  were,  and  he  seems  to 
imply  that  he  had  used  all  these  accounts  as  well  as  other 
material  to  make  a  complete  and  ordered  story.  What  these 
earliest  accounts  were  we  do  not  know.  They  probably 
precede  all  of  our  Gospels  except,  possibly,  Mark.  We 
have  one  ancient  tradition  coming  indirectly  from  a  church 
father  named  Papias,  and  dating  about  a  century  after  Jesus' 
death.  Papias  says:  "Matthew  composed  the  oracles  [or 
sayings]  in  the  Hebrew  language,  and  each  one  interpreted 
them  as  he  could."  He  also  tells  us  that  Mark  wrote  down 
accurately,  though  not  in  order,  everything  that  Peter  re- 
lated of  the  things  said  or  done  by  Christ.  In  addition  to 
this,  scholars  have  carefully  compared  the  Gospels  them- 
selves to  gain  what  light  they  could.  They  have  found  evi- 
dence that  at  least  two  of  these  Gospels,  Matthew  and  Luke, 
have  used  earlier  writings,  and  not  simply  as  sources,  but 
by  incorporating  their  materials  with  very  little  change. 
One  of  these  sources  was  Mark's  Gospel  itself.  Another 
seems  to  have  been  a  collection  of  the  sayings  of  Jesus. 

With  these  suggestions  we  can  outline  the  probable  story   The  oral 
of  the  forming  of  our  present  gospel  accounts,  dividing  this  ^^°^ 
into  three  stages : 

I.  The  oral  period  came  first.  The  disciples  who  had 
known  Jesus  told  the  story  of  his  life  and  death  in  preaching 
to  others,  and  repeated  his  teachings  for  the  instruction 
and  guidance  of  believers.  Repeated  over  and  over  again, 
the  parables  of  Jesus,  his  pointed  sayings,  and  stories  like 
those  of  his  healings,  would  come  to  have  fixed  forms. 
There  was  no  thought  of  writing  and  for  two  reasons :  first. 


3o8 


NEW  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 


The  first 
writings 


Completed 
Gospels 


because  the  church  would  naturally  prefer  the  living  voice 
of  one  who  had  seen  and  heard  Jesus ;  and,  second,  because 
all  were  expecting  the  speedy  return  of  Christ  and  so  had 
no  thought  of  writings  to  preserve  his  words  for  the  future. 
This  may  have  lasted  for  years,  but  the  need  of  writings 
soon  appeared.  The  church  was  spreading  rapidly.  There 
were  not  enough  of  these  eyewitnesses  to  go  around.  As 
the  years  passed  too  they  began  to  diminish  by  death.  What 
was  more  natural  than  to  secure  in  writing  brief  collections 
of  the  sayings  of  Jesus,  or  stories  of  his  deeds  and  particu- 
larly of  his  death?  Before  this  individual  believers  had 
probably  written  down  for  their  own  use  sayings  or  stories 
heard  from  a  Peter,  a  John,  or  another  first  disciple. 

2.  Thus  we  have  the  period  of  the  first  writings.  One 
of  these  was  the  collection  of  sayings  of  which  Papias 
speaks,  made  by  Matthew  or  by  some  disciple  upon  the 
basis  of  Matthew's  teaching.  Another  was  the  simple  story 
of  Jesus'  deeds  as  we  have  it  in  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  written 
probably  by  John  Mark,  with  Peter  as  his  sponsor.  Other 
and  briefer  collections  of  sayings  and  accounts  of  incidents 
were  made,  but  we  have  no  individual  knowledge  of  them. 

3.  As  a  third  stage  we  have  our  present  completed 
Gospels.  It  should  be  remembered  that  none  of  these  gives 
in  itself  the  name  of  the  author.  The  names  at  the  head 
of  these  writings  in  our  English  Bibles  are  simply  the 
tradition  of  the  church.  Here,  again,  we  can  'only  speak  of 
probabilities.  Mark  is  probably  the  oldest  Gospel  and  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  the  story  just  referred  to.  Matthew 
comes  next,  bearing  this  name  because  it  contains  the  col- 
lection of  sayings  which  came  from  the  apostle.  The  com- 
piler, however,  used  not  only  this  collection,  but  large 
portions  of  Mark,  and  other  materials  as  well.  Luke  also 
used  these  two  sources,  the  sayings  and  Mark.  He  had 
other  sources,  however,  in  addition,  as  he  indicates,  and 
from  these  he  gets  such  stories  as  those  of  Dives  and 
Lazarus,  the  good  Samaritan,  and  the  prodigal  son,  which 


MAKING  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT       309 

he  alone  gives.  These  three  Gospels,  in  the  order  named, 
were  probably  written  in  the  years  between  50  and  90,  such 
a  source  as  Matthew's  collection  of  sayings  being  still  earlier. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  the  other  New  Testament  writings 
all  had  some  special  occasion  for  their  composition,  just 
as  the  letters  of  Paul.  Revelation  was  written  to  strengthen 
the  Christians  against  persecutions.  First  John  was  directed 
against  particular  heresies  which  it  attacks  specifically.  The 
fourth  Gospel  had  a  similar  practical  and  immediate  purpose. 

But  the  story  of  how  these  writings  were  composed  does  what  was 
not  answer  our  second  and  main  question:  How  did  the  fii^iauthomy 

^_  in  the  early 

church  come  to  make  a  special  collection  of  them,  to  include  church:  oid 
these  and  no  others,  and  to  set  them  on  a  level  with  the  Old  Testament 

and  Jesus? 

Testament  as  sacred  writings?  Nothing  was  farther  than 
this  from  the  minds  of  the  writers.  The  early  church  had 
two  authorities.  The  first  was  the  Old  Testament,  especially 
the  prophets,  which  it  interpreted  from  the  Christian  point 
of  view.  The  Old  Testament  was  the  Bible  of  the  early 
church,  and  for  over  a  hundred  years  it  was  its  only  Bible. 
This  alone  was  read  in  its  worship  as  Sacred  Scripture.  To 
it  the  appeal  was  made  in  argument  as  we  see  from  Paul. 
The  second  authority  was  the  words  of  Jesus.  This  too  was 
final,  and  stood  even  above  the  Old  Testament.  Nothing 
shows  more  the  complete  mastery  that  Jesus  had  over  his 
disciples  than  this  fact.  These  Jews,  brought  up  from  child- 
hood to  reverence  the  law  and  the  prophets  as  the  absolute 
and  final  word  of  God,  yet  retained  and  accepted  the  word 
of  Jesus  when  he  set  himself  above  this  and  declared.  "But 
I  say  unto  }Ou."  Neither  Paul  nor  any  of  the  evangelists 
thought  of  putting  their  words  as  final  authority  for  the 
church  by  the  side  of  the  Old  Testament  or  the  words  of 
Jesus. 

In  a  sense  too  the  word  about  Jesus,  the  gospel,  or  good  The  gospel 
news,   was   authority.     This   was   what   they   believed,    the 
faith  that  made  the  Christians  one.     But  this  authority  be- 
longs to  the  gospel  as  a  living  word,  not  to  an\-  writing  as 


authority 


3IO 


NEW  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 


Authority  and 
inspiration 


Letters  and 
Gospels  used 
in  worship 


such  that  brings  it,  whether  the  story  according  to  Mark  or 
the  sermon  according  to  Paul  as  given  in  his  letters.  For 
a  century  and  more  this  remains  true.  The  early  writers  are 
very  careful  to  quote  the  exact  words  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Not  so  with  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament.  Here  it 
is  the  thought  that  counts,  not  the  words.  It  is  not  these 
writings  that  they  hold  sacred,  but  the  gospel  in  these 
writings.  "I  delivered  unto  you  first  of  all,"  Paul  says,  "that 
which  I  received"  (i  Cor  15.  3).  These  men  were  anxious 
to  hand  down  the  message  that  they  had  received,  the  pure 
gospel,  and  the  writings  were  a  help  to  this,  but  they  had 
not  made  a  Bible  of  the  writings. 

All  this  does  not  mean  that  the  writers  did  not  feel  that 
they  were  inspired,  that  they  were  moved  by  the  Spirit  of 
God.  They  felt  this  just  as  truly  as  did  the  teachers  and 
prophets  at  Corinth  of  whom  we  have  studied.  That  faith 
was  universal  in  the  early  church.  Nor  did  it  cease  with 
our  writings.  Clement,  who  writes  about  95  for  the  Roman 
church  to  the  church  at  Corinth,  makes  the  same  kind  of 
claim  that  the  writer  of  Revelation  makes  (22.  18,  19). 
But  neither  of  these  men  would  have  put  their  writings  on 
a  level  with  the  Old  Testament.  Such  a  declaration  as 
that  of  I  Tim  3.  15-17  refers  plainly  to  the  Old  Testament, 
the  sacred  writings  which  Timothy  had  studied  from  his 
youth.  We  see  the  same  distinction  in  First  Corinthians. 
Paul  feels  that  he  has  the  Spirit  of  God,  but  he  distinguishes 
carefully  between  the  Old  Testament  to  which  he  appeals, 
the  words  of  Jesus,  and  his  own  judgment  (i  Cor  7.  10,  12, 
25,  40 ;  9.  9).  Aside  from  the  sense  of  inspiration,  there  was 
a  special  respect  given  to  the  authority  of  the  apostles 
from  the  beginning,  and  this  grew  with  the  passing  years. 
Clement  of  Rome  feels  that  he  is  speaking  by  the  Spirit  of 
God,  but  he  does  not  think  of  placing  himself  beside  an 
apostle  like  Paul. 

The  use  of  these  writings  in  the  worship  of  the  church 
was  the  first  step  that  prepared  the  way  for  their  valuation 


MAKING  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT       311 

as  Scripture.  Such  a  use  must  have  been  very  early,  and 
came  about  very  naturally.  When  one  of  Paul's  churches 
received  a  letter  from  him,  they  were  certainly  not  con- 
tented with  reading  it  once.  It  would  be  read  again  and 
again  as  they  met  for  worship,  till  it  was  fixed  in  their 
minds.  It  would  be  referred  to  later  to  help  settle  questions 
that  arose.  Thus  Clement  in  his  letter  from  Rome  advises 
the  Corinthians  to  take  up  again  Paul's  letter  to  them.  What 
Paul  suggests  to  the  Colossians  (4.  16),  that  they  exchange 
letters  with  the  Laodiceans,  must  have  taken  place  between 
other  churches.  Small  collections  of  Paul's  letters  would 
thus  be  made.  In  the  absence  of  Paul  these  would  be  read 
to  the  congregation.  In  the  same  manner  any  church  might 
count  itself  fortunate  to  possess  one  of  the  Gospels,  so  that 
they  might  hear  the  words  of  Jesus  or  stories  of  his  deeds. 

Such  use  does  not  imply  that  these  writings  were  as  yet  They  come  to 
regarded  as  "Bible."     The  Old  Testament  was  the  Bible  »'«^«g"^ed 

°  as  Scripture 

and  was  read  as  such  in  the  service.  The  epistles  and 
Gospels  came  in  the  place  of  the  sermon.  They  were  not 
the  sacred  text  from  which  men  preached ;  they  were  rather 
the  message  itself,  the  gospel  which  was  read  when  no  one 
was  present  to  give  it  with  living  voice.  It  was  in  the 
second  century  that  the  change  took  place.  It  was  a  gradual 
and  natural  change.  Read  so  long  by  the  side  of  the  Old 
Testament,  the  writings  began  to  share  the  position  of  the 
former.  The  church,  moreover,  began  to  see  that  her  real 
message,  the  truth  which  justified  her,  lay  in  these  Christian 
books ;  and  more  and  more  reverence  was  being  attached 
to  the  men  of  the  first  age  who  wrote  them. 

It  was  another  cause  that  hastened  this  process  and  com-  Marcion  and 
pelled  the  church  to  take  definite  action.  We  have  noted  ^gsJ^Qt 
the  rise  of  heresies  in  connection  with  the  writings  of  John 
by  which  they  were  opposed.  About  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  these  began  to  seriously  threaten  the  church. 
The  most  notable  leader  was  Marcion.  He  joined  an 
appreciation  of  Paul  with  a  strange  mixture  of  wild  specula- 


312 


NEW  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 


He  compels 
the  church 
to  act 


The  task  of 
the  church 


The  two 
Standards 


tion.  He  claimed,  of  course,  to  represent  the  true  Christian 
tradition.  The  Old  Testament  he  threw  out  altogether. 
Then  he  set  up  a  Christian  collection,  or  canon,  in  its  stead. 
This  included  the  Gospel  of  Luke  with  ten  epistles  of  Paul, 
omitting  the  pastoral  letters.  Even  from  these  he  cut  out 
the  passages  that  did  not  agree  with  his  position. 

The  first  Christian  canon  was  thus  made  by  a  heretic. 
The  word  "canon"  originally  meant  a  rule  for  measuring. 
As  applied  to  the  Scriptures  it  means  the  collection  made 
according  to  a  given  rule  and  including  the  writings  that 
are  held  as  sacred  and  authoritative.  The  church  was  thus 
compelled  to  face  the  question  which  for  years  had  really 
been  present:  What  are  the  writings  that  really  represent 
the  Christian  tradition  and  authority?  It  needed  a  definite 
body  of  Scriptures  to  oppose  to  Marcion  and  others  like  him. 

The  first  task  of  the  church  here  was  not  to  make  a 
collection.  That  was  already  made,  for  the  church  possessed 
all  these  writings.  The  real  problem  was  that  of  exclusion. 
There  were  many  other  writings  current  among  the  churches 
besides  those  of  our  present  New  Testament.  Some  of 
these  had  only  local  currency.  Others  were  quite  widely 
used.  The  epistle  of  Hermas  and  the  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews 
were  among  the  latter.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the 
books  of  our  New  Testament  were  not  generally  accepted. 
Such  were  Revelation,  Hebrews,  Jude,  Second  Peter,  and 
Second  and  Third  John.  Two  influences  seem  to  have 
shaped  the  decision  of  the  church  in  its  selections.  One 
was  the  extent  to  which  these  writings  had  been  used  in 
the  worship  of  the  church.  The  other  w^as  the  apostolic 
character  of  the  writings.  What  the  church  wanted  was 
to  state  and  to  guard  the  true  tradition.  Marcion  had  ap- 
pealed to  one  apostle.  They  wished  to  bring  forward  the 
authority  of  them  all.  The  book  of  Acts  aided  in  this,  as 
it  was  held  to  set  forth  the  acts  of  all  the  apostles.  There 
were,  of  course,  writings  long  held  in  high  esteem  and  used 
in  the  worship  of  the  church  that  did  not  come  or  claim 


how  done 


MAKING  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT       313 

to  come  from  the  apostles.  In  case  of  Mark  the  authority 
of  Peter  was  called  upon ;  in  case  of  Luke  and  Acts  the 
author  was  vouched  for  by  his  association  with  Paul. 

We  must  not  picture  this  work  as  being  done  at  one  time  when  and 
or  by  unanimous  consent.  It  was  not  decided  by  some 
imiversal  church  council.  The  discussion  and  differences  as 
to  the  books  mentioned  above  continued  for  a  matter  of  two 
centuries.  The  main  work,  however,  was  done  within  a 
period  of  fifty  years.  By  the  year  200  the  large  part  of  the 
church  accepted  the  canon  substantially  as  we  have  it  now. 
Two  great  divisions  were  taken  in  without  question :  the 
four  Gospels  with  Acts,  and  the  thirteen  letters  of  Paul. 
Of  the  other  writings  First  John  and  First  Peter  were 
generally  received.  Revelation  was  opposed  in  some  quar- 
ters because  of  its  views  on  the  second  coming.  Hebrews 
was  not  generally  received  until  it  was  attributed  to  Paul. 
There  was  thus  practically  no  question  about  the  great  and 
essential  parts  of  our  New  Testament. 

Looking  back,  one  cannot  but  say  that  the  church  was 
guided  in  this  work  by  the  same  Spirit  by  which  the  early 
church  had  felt  itself  controlled.  It  is  our  duty,  it  is  true, 
to  distinguish  between  the  various  writings  in  the  New 
Testament.  Some  of  these  works,  like  James  and  Revela- 
tion, were  criticized  by  the  great  reformers,  especially 
Luther.  But  this  was  because  they  tried  to  apply  one  fixed 
standard  to  them  all.  The  relative  value  of  these  books  is 
suggested  by  the  attitude  of  the  early  church.  We  place 
first,  as  they  did,  the  Gospels  and  Paul  and  in  this  order. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  books  about  whose  acceptance  there 
was  some  question  are  those  which  are  of  lesser  value  to- 
day. An  equally  important  question  is  often  asked :  Were 
not  valuable  writings  omitted,  writings  that  might  have 
equal  claim  to  be  inspired?  There  were  other  Christian 
writings  of  value,  some  of  them  preserved  for  us,  but  there 
is  not  one  of  these  which  could  command  the  support  of 
scholars  if  the  canon  were  being  formed  anew  to-day. 


A  BRIEF   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Introductory  and  General 

Huck:   Synopsis  of  the   First  Three   Gospels. 
Hastings  or  Standard:  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  one  volume. 
Hall :   Historical   Setting  of  the  Early  Gospel. 
Mathews:  History  of  New  Testament  Times. 
Wood  and  Grant :  The  Bible  as  Literature :  An  Introduction. 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament;  briefer,  by  Bacon  or  Peake; 
larger,  by  Moffatt  or  Jiilicher. 

Jesus 

Life  of  Jesus,  Rhees,  Gilbert,  Holtzmann,  and  others. 
Kent :  Life  and  Teaching  of  Jesus. 
Stevens :  Teaching  of  Jesus. 

Paul  and  the  Apostolic  Age 

Histories   of  the   Apostolic   Age;   briefer,  by    Ropes   and    Purves; 

larger,  by  McGiffert  and  Weizsacker. 
Dobschiitz:  Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church. 
Rhees:  Life  of  Paul. 

Weinel :  Saint  Paul,  the  Man  and  His  Work. 
Ramsay:  The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire,  and  Saint  Paul  the 

Traveler  and  Roman   Citizen. 
Deissmann :   Saint  Paul. 

Huck's  Synopsis  is  of  special  value  in  the  study  of  the  Gospels. 
The  student  who  can  buy  but  one  book  should  have  the  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible. 


314 


Date  Due 

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